I'm sure you've heard of Isaac Newton and maybe of some of his laws. Like, that thing about "equal and opposite reactions" and such. But what do his laws mean? And how do they help us understand the world around us? In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini talks to us about just that.

***
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How do companies make money? What are profits? Revenues? How are prices set? This week, Jacob and Adriene are talking business. Whether you're selling cars, pizza, or glow sticks, this video has pretty much all the information you need to run a business. Well, not really, but there's a lot of good stuff in here.

***

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Last week, we met the Presocratics: despite having by any reasonable standard invented science in Europe, these thinkers are lumped together today as simply “not Socrates.”
So who was this smarty pants? In this episode Hank talks to us about Socrates and his two important students, Plato and Aristotle.

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Hank brings us to the next level of ecological study with ecosystem ecology, which looks at how energy, nutrients, and materials are getting shuffled around within an ecosystem (a collection of living and nonliving things interacting in a specific place), and which basically comes down to who is eating who.

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Table of Contents
1) Defining Ecosystems 0:49:1
2) Trophic Structure 4:44:1
a) Primary Producers 5:27
b) Primary Consumers 5:41
c) Secondary Consumers 5:49:1
d) Tertiary Consumers 5:58:2
e) Detrivores 6:08:1
3) Bioaccumulation 8:47


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I'm sure you've all heard about Isaac Newton and that apple that fell on his head and how that was a huge deal to our understanding of gravity. Well... let's talk about that. In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini sits down to talk about the realities of the apple story and how Newtonian Gravity is more than a little important.


***

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This week we are wrapping up our overview of sociology’s core frameworks and founding theorists with a look Max Weber and his understanding of the modern world. We’ll explore rationalization and the transition from traditional to modern society. We’ll also discuss bureaucracy, legitimacy, and social stratification in the modern state. Finally, we’ll see why Weber was so worried about the modern world.

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In which John Green teaches you about water! So, we talk about resources a lot on Crash Course, and today is no exception. It turns out people can't live without water, which means it's absolutely necessary for civilization. Today John talks about water in the context of classical civilizations, but not like Greece or Rome or something. We're talking about the Maya civilization in Central America, and the Khmer civilization in what is now Cambodia. So this is an awesome video, OK?

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Citation 1: Steven J. Mithen - Sue Mithen, Thirst: Water and Power in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press. 2012. p 235
Citation 2: Patrice Bonnafoux, cited in Mithen. p243
Citation 3: Mithen. p 296

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In this episode, Hank goes over Reversible Reactions, the water dissociation constant, what pH and pOH actually mean, Acids, Bases, and Neutral Substances as well as the not-so-terrifying Logarithms, strong acids, weak acids, and how to calculate pH and pOH. Oh, and litmus paper!

***** AND NOW, A SUBBABLE MESSAGE! *****
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From Mum and Nemo."

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Table of Contents
Reversible Reactions 3:40
Water Dissociation Constant 5:00
Acids, Bases, & Neutral Substances 6:38
Strong and Weak Acids 7:43
Logarithms 1:46
Calculating pH and pOH 8:45
Cool Mathematical Connections 9:54

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In which John Green, Hank Green, and Emily Graslie teach you about, well, everything. Big History is the history of everything. We're going to start with the Big Bang, take you right through all of history (recorded and otherwise), and even talk a little bit about the future. It is going to be awesome. In the awe-inspiring sense of the word awesome. In this episode, we walk you through the start of everything: The Big Bang. We'll look at how the universe unfolded at its very beginning, and how everything in the universe that we know today came into being. So that's kind of a big deal, right?

For more information, visit www.bighistoryproject.com

So, if economics is about choices and how we use our resources, econ probably has a lot to say about the environment, right? Right! In simple terms, pollution is just a market failure. The market is producing more pollution than society wants. This week, Adriene and Jacob focus on the environment, and how economics can be used to control and reduce pollution and emissions. You'll learn about supply and demand, incentives, and how government intervention influences the environment.

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Hank bursts our ideal gas law bubble, er, balloon, and brings us back to reality, explaining how the constants in the gas law aren't all that constant; how the ideal gas law we've spent the past two weeks with has to be corrected for volume because atoms and molecules take up space and for pressure because they're attracted to each other; that Einstein was behind a lot more of what we know today than most people realize; and how a Dutch scientist named Johannes van der Waals figured out those correction factors in the late 19th century and earned a Nobel Prize for his efforts.

Table of Contents
Constants in the Gas Laws Aren't all that Constant 1:20
The Ideal Gas Law has to be Corrected for Volume and Pressure 3:26
Einstein was the Bomb 5:02
Van Der Waals Equation 9:38
Never Give Up! 10:08

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In which John Green teaches you about Homer's Odyssey. If it was Homer's If Homer was even real. Anyway, that stuff doesn't really matter. John teaches you the classic, by which I mean classical, epic poem, the Odyssey. The Journey of Odysseus as he made his way home after the conclusion of the Trojan War is the stuff of legend. Literally. John will teach you about the double standard in Greek culture, Odysseus as jerk/hero, ancient PTSD, and cycles of violence. Also, there are no yogurt jokes. So think of that as a gift.

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In which Jacob and Adriene teach you about the evils of fiscal policy and stimulus. Well, maybe the policies aren't evil, but there is an evil lair involved. In this episode we learn how government use taxes and spending influence the economy. Sometimes the government gives, and sometimes it takes. And the giving and the taking can have a profound effect on how economies behave.

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In which Jacob Clifford and Adriene Hill teach you about Economic Systems and Macroeconomics. So, economics is basically about choices. We'll look at some of the broadest economic choices when we talk about the difference between planned economies and market economies. We'll get into communism, socialism, command economies, and capitalism. We'll look at how countries choose the kind of system they're going to use (spoiler alert: many end up with mixed economies). We'll also look into how individuals make economic choices.

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TO: Everyone
FROM: Martin

To gild refined gold is just silly.


TO: Dana
FROM: Cameron

Still holding out. We're going to make it!

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Now that we’ve finished our tour of the planets, we’re headed back to the asteroid belt. Asteroids are chunks of rock, metal, or both that were once part of smallish planets but were destroyed after collisions. Most orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter, but some get near the Earth. The biggest, Ceres is far smaller than the Moon but still big enough to be round and have undergone differentiation.

CORRECTION: In the episode we say that 2010 TK7 is 800 km away. However, 2010 TK7 stays on average 150 million kilometers from Earth, but that can vary wildly.
Sorry about that!

--

Table of Contents
Asteroids Are Chunks of Rock, Metal, or Both 1:45
Most Orbit the Sun Between Mars and Jupiter 7:16
Ceres is Far Smaller Than the Moon, But Large Enough to be Round 3:43

--

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Timelapse of Asteroid 2004 FH's flyby http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Asteroid_2004_FH [credit: NASA/JPL Public Domain]
Asteroid Discovery Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2k2vkLEE4ko [credit: Scott Manley - scottmanley1972@gmail.com]
Inner Solar System http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:InnerSolarSystem [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Kirkwood gaps http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Kirkwood-ga [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Ceres, Earth & Moon size comparison http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Ceres,_Earth_%26 [credit: NASA]
Dawn Glimpses Ceres’ North Pole http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/n....ews.php?release=2015 [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA]
Ceres cutaway http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Ceres_Cutaw [credit: NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI)]
Bright Spot on Ceres Has Dimmer Companion http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spacei....mages/details.php?id [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA]
Vesta http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4...._Vesta#/media/File:V [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCAL/MPS/DLR/IDA]
Lutetia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....1_Lutetia#/media/Fil [credit: ESA]
Gaspra http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Galileo_Gas [credit: NASA]
Steins http://neo.ssa.esa.int/image/image_gallery?uuid=db747cf5-9d21-405e-bcdb-e70fe475edc9&groupId=10157&t=1340734455649 [credit: ESA/Osiris]
Mathilde http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/images/mathilde1.jpg [credit: NEAR Spacecraft Team, JHUAPL, NASA]
Ida http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....43_Ida#/media/File:2 [credit: NASA/JPL]
Kleopatra http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap000510.html [credit: Stephen Ostro et al. (JPL), Arecibo Radio Telescope, NSF, NASA]
An artist's conception of two Pluto-sized dwarf planets in a collision around Vega. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M....ethods_of_detecting_ [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/T. Pyle (SSC)]
Itokawa http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140209.html [credit: ISAS, JAXA]
An artist's illustration showing two asteroid belts and a planet orbiting Epsilon Eridani http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....psilon_Eridani#/medi [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Near-Earth Asteroids http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images..../asteroid/20130204/a [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Lagrange Points Diagram http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....rojan_(astronomy)#/m [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
TK7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....010_TK7#/media/File: [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA]
165347 Philplait http://www.slate.com/content/d....am/slate/blogs/bad_a [credit: Larry Denneau/Pan-STARRS via Amy Mainzer]

We love the internet! It's a wealth of information where we can learn about just about anything, but it's also kind of a pit of information that can be false or misleading. So, we're partnering with Mediawise and the Stanford History Education Group to make this series on Navigating Digital Information. Let's learn the facts about facts!

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Today we’re going to talk about how computers understand speech and speak themselves. As computers play an increasing role in our daily lives there has been an growing demand for voice user interfaces, but speech is also terribly complicated. Vocabularies are diverse, sentence structures can often dictate the meaning of certain words, and computers also have to deal with accents, mispronunciations, and many common linguistic faux pas. The field of Natural Language Processing, or NLP, attempts to solve these problems, with a number of techniques we’ll discuss today. And even though our virtual assistants like Siri, Alexa, Google Home, Bixby, and Cortana have come a long way from the first speech processing and synthesis models, there is still much room for improvement.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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This week on Crash Course Econ, Jacob and Adriene are talking about failure. Specifically, we're talking about market failures. When markets don't provide a good or service efficiently, that's a market failure. When markets fail, often governments step in to provide those services. Stuff like public education or military protection are good examples of market failures. So, what are some of the ways governments address, market failures? Well, it's funny you should ask, as we also talk about that in this episode. We'll get into taxes and subsidies and externalities and a bunch of other important stuff this week on Crash Course Econ.

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It's time for the end. At least the end of our first series on Physics here at Crash Course. In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini sits down to talk about Astrophysics and Cosmology. By using what we've learned this year, we can come to understandings about our universe. Understandings that open ideas to us to help us grasp how our universe works. Join us for this final episode of Crash Course Physics as we head into the final frontier.

Crash Course Phsyics is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios. Click the link to check out a playlist of their newest videos!

http://www.youtube.com/playlis....t?list=PL1mtdjDVOoOq


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In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini is very excited to start talking about Fluids. You see, she's a Fluid Dynamicist and Mechanical Engineer, so fluids are really important to her. Actually they're really important to anyone studying physics. So, let's start down this path of understanding, not only how fluids work, but what they are!

--

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