Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Our new sticker is available here: https://store.dftba.com/collections/eons

And check out Tacos of Texas!: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PLh_qdzak59m

Purgatorius, a kind of mammal called a plesiadapiform, might’ve been one of your earliest ancestors. But how did we get from a mouse-sized creature that looked more like a squirrel than a monkey -- to you, a member of Homo sapiens?

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the Purgatorius reconstruction. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

And thanks as always to Nobumichi Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao. Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
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References:
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad1.html
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/topicpage/the-mole
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://www.amnh.org/explore/n....ews-blogs/news-posts
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics
http://users.tamuk.edu/kfjab02..../Biology/Mammalogy/s
https://askananthropologist.as....u.edu/stories/our-pr
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/fa....ctsheets/entry/black
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Hominidae/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
http://www.sciencemag.org/news..../2012/08/generation-
https://www.eva.mpg.de/3chimps/files/apes.htm
https://www.nature.com/news/dn....a-mutation-clock-pro
http://www.pnas.org/content/112/5/1487
Collard, M., & Wood, B. (2013). Defining the genus Homo. Handbook of Paleoanthropology: Vol I: Principles, Methods and Approaches Vol II: Primate Evolution and Human Origins Vol III: Phylogeny of Hominids, 1-31.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12644563
http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/El....sArticle/refId-a0020
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29109469
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29342307
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1002/aj
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4964406
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10842
https://academic.oup.com/mbe/a....rticle-abstract/20/1
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/349/6251/931
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28429568
https://www.annualreviews.org/....doi/abs/10.1146/annu
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/pdf/10.1002/ev
http://science.sciencemag.org/....content/347/6228/135
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature09094

Watch the Deep Time Hall livestream here:
https://www.facebook.com/EonsP....BS/videos/4245702917
You can set a reminder on that post to be notified when it goes live!

Don’t forget to check out When Whales Walked: Journeys in Deep Time: https://www.pbs.org/tpt/when-whales-walked/

As a scientific concept, evolution was revolutionary when it was first introduced. With the help of all three of our hosts and the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History’s new Deep Time Hall, we’ll try to explain how evolution actually works and how we came to understand it.

This episode was written by Darcy Shapiro.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Zachary Spencer, Stefan Weber, Ilya Murashov, Charles Kahle, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier.html
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/lamarck.html
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://www.amnh.org/exhibitio....ns/darwin/a-trip-aro
http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/index1.htm
http://wallacefund.info/content/biography-wallace
http://wallacefund.info/conten....t/1858-darwin-wallac
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/topicpage/gregor-m
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolu....tion/library/01/6/l_
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://phys.org/news/2018-08-....truth-darwin-moth.ht
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
https://www.wired.com/2010/09/florida-panthers/
Bowler, P. (2001). History of Evolutionary Ideas: The Modern Synthesis. ELS: Encyclopedia of the life sciences, 1-5.
Papavero, N., & Santos, C. F. M. D. (2014). Darwinian evolutionism? Contributions of Alfred Russel Wallace to the theory of evolution. Revista Brasileira de História, 34(67), 159-180.
https://www.biodiversitylibrar....y.org/page/2283958#p

Check out our other journeys through geologic time here :
https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PLi6K9w_UbfF

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Over the first season of PBS Eons, we’ve explored the history of Earth from the very origins of life right up to the Cenozoic Era that we’re in now. To celebrate our first anniversary together, we’d like to answer some of your most frequently asked questions.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Dave, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, phil parker, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Katie Fichtner, Budjarn Lambeth, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan, Jordon Sokoll

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature24679
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265553416_Semiaquatic_adaptations_in_a_giant_predatory_dinosaur?enrichId=rgreq-d298c20fbadcb0c1e9961c1c4f7d401f-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTU1MzQxNjtBUzoxNTgyODkzNTQ1Njc2ODBAMTQxNDc1MDUzMTMyNw%3D%3D&el=1_x_3&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.theatlantic.com/sc....ience/archive/2016/0
http://quaternary.stratigraphy.....org/workinggroups/a
http://www.igbp.net/download/1....8.316f18321323470177
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
http://www.pnas.org/content/pn....as/113/15/3908.full.

For more than 10 million years, Megalodon was at the top of its game as the oceans’ apex predator...until 2.6 million years ago, when it went extinct. So, what happened to the largest shark in history?

Thanks as always to Nobumichi Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

And thanks to Joschua Knüppe and Studio 252mya for the illustration of Piscobalaena. You can find more of Joschua's work here: https://www.deviantart.com/hyrotrioskjan

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, سلطان الخليفي, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://www.researchgate.net/p....rofile/John_Barron3/
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/312500230
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28586693
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27381883
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC45415
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29754903
http://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/si....tes/default/files/ar
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27620830
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/full/10.1111/j
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature09067
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/327/5968/993
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2813
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/233681377
http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UFE0042397/00001

Insects were the first animals to ever develop the ability to fly, and, arguably, they did it the best. But this development was so unusual that scientists are still/working on, and arguing about, how and when insect wings first came about.

Special thanks to Franz Anthony for the beautiful insect reconstructions. You can see more of Franz's tremendous work at http://252mya.com

Phylogenomics resolves the timing and pattern of insect evolution:
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/346/6210/763

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Dave, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, phil parker, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Katie Fichtner, Budjarn Lambeth, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan, Jordon Sokoll

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://www.cell.com/current-b....iology/pdf/S0960-982
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12629
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/346/6210/763
http://science.sciencemag.org/....content/349/6247/487
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/0....3/26/science/insect-
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://phys.org/news/2012-08-....humble-bug-gap-fossi
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23426326/
https://livingwithinsects.word....press.com/2014/09/04
https://www.cell.com/current-b....iology/pdf/S0960-982
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC54529
https://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/collembolan.htm
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/topicpage/the-mole

Camels are famous for adaptations that have allowed them to flourish where most other large mammals would perish. But their story begins over 40 million years ago in North America, and in an environment you’d never expect: a rainforest.  

Special thanks to Julio Lacerda, WillemSvdMerwe, and Ryan Somma for allowing us to use their images in this episode!

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1304168.pdf
https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/1979
https://books.google.com/books?id=I-RgojcDyWYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=camel&f=false
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/full/10.1111/j
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4524199
https://books.google.com/books?id=DWtCw6-AxA8C&pg=PA136&lpg=PA136&dq=camel&source=bl&ots=gUrNWj3psO&sig=YpvjEov5zpTUcSbrZFfDkoTrhFo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj_5siqvJreAhVMIDQIHSkpCaEQ6AEwC3oECAQQAQ#v=onepage&q=camel&f=false
https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=NGFaAAAAYAAJ&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA110
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://link.springer.com/arti....cle/10.1007/s12052-0
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms2516.pdf
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.o....rg/966f/07eaaa19190b
http://www.pnas.org/content/pn....as/early/2015/03/18/
https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=42514&is_real_user=1

Try CuriosityStream today: http://curiositystream.com/eons

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

In 1993, scientists cracked open a piece of amber, took out the body of an ancient weevil, and sampled its DNA. Or, at least, so we thought. It took another few decades of research, and a lot of take-backs, before scientists could figure out how we could truly unlock the genetic secrets of the past.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao. Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28486705
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/17
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13408
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10574
http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/....10.1603/0013-8746%28
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26989198
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/a....rticle/pjab1977/65/1
http://rspb.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/264
https://www.tandfonline.com/do....i/abs/10.1080/205489
https://blogs.scientificameric....an.com/guest-blog/ju
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1684053
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14711425
https://www.nature.com/articles/362709a0
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.o....rg/gsa/geology/artic
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23055061
https://www.nature.com/articles/363536a0
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC26949

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Try CuriosityStream today: http://curiositystream.com/eons

Paleontologists have been studying and drawing totally different conclusions about the fossil LH PV18 for almost a decade. Is it just one of many specimens of a theropod called Tarbosaurus bataar or is it an entirely different theropod named Raptorex kriegsteini? In order to answer this question, you have to understand the many ways in which we can--and can’t--determine the age of a fossil.

Thanks to Gregory S. Paul for allowing us to use his illustrations in this video. Check out his website here: http://gspauldino.com/

And thanks as always to Nobu Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://www.radiocarbon.com/ab....out-carbon-dating.ht
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep20252
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/288175395
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1360/02tb9031
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5951/418
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3515101

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Learn more about Hack the Moon at https://wehackthemoon.com

Check out Reactions’s Summer of Space video on the Northern Lights! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8S_LPFOa-zs

Throughout the Pleistocene Epoch, the range of the woolly rhino grew and shrank in sync with global climate. So what caused the climate -- and the range of the woolly rhino -- to cycle back and forth between such extremes?

Thanks to Julio Lacerda and Studio 252mya for the excellent Woolly Rhino illustration. You can find more of Julio's work here: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Stefan Weber, Ilya Murashov, Charles Kahle, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/10.1111/j.1502
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08024
https://science.sciencemag.org..../content/349/6248/60
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11493
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/abs/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/abs/
https://science.sciencemag.org..../content/255/5044/56
https://science.sciencemag.org..../content/297/5585/12
https://science.sciencemag.org..../content/207/4434/94
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.....wiley.com/doi/full/1
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https://data.giss.nasa.gov/ar5/srorbpar.html
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/abs/
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/285683499
http://biocycle.atmos.colostat....e.edu/shiny/Milankov
http://curry.eas.gatech.edu/Co....urses/5225/ency/Chap
Markovic, A. "Woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis (Blumenbach, 1803) from Pleistocene of Serbia." Bulletin of the Natural History Museum of Belgrade (A) 47 (1998): 217-237.

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Insects outnumber humans by a lot and we only like to think we're in charge because we're bigger than they are. But insects and other arthropods weren’t always so small. About 315 million years ago during the Carboniferous Period, they were not only abundant: they were enormous.

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Thanks to Lucas Lima, and Studio 252mya for their illustrations. You can find more of Lucas's work here: https://252mya.com/gallery/lucas-lima

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References:
http://news.nationalgeographic.....com/news/2011/08/11
http://journals.plos.org/ploso....ne/article?id=10.137
https://www.wired.com/2010/11/....huge-dragonflies-oxy
http://rspb.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/277
http://bionumbers.hms.harvard.....edu/bionumber.aspx?i
https://news.ucsc.edu/2012/06/giant-insects.html
https://www.si.edu/Encyclopedi....a_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bu
http://www.pnas.org/content/96/20/10955.full
https://www.nap.edu/read/11630/chapter/8#117

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The ancestors of modern horses became so successful that they spread all over the world, to Europe, Asia, South America, and Africa. But in their native range of North America, they’ll vanish for 10,000 years. Until another strange mammal brings them back.

The illustration of Equus Simplicidens--also known as the Hagerman Horse--is by Roger Hall. You can check out more of Roger's work at http://InkArt.net

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Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Kelby Reid, Steph Summerfield, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan

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References:
Fossil Horses by Bruce J. MacFadden
http://www.ajsonline.org/conte....nt/s3-12/71/401.extr
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4....522989?seq=1#page_sc
http://chem.tufts.edu/science/....evolution/horseevolu
https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/fhc/firstCM.htm
https://link.springer.com/arti....cle/10.1007/s12052-0
https://www.nationalgeographic.....com/adventure/featu
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www.palass.org/publica....tions/palaeontology-
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02098
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature04604
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/1476//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/bul/B022a22.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
https://projects.iq.harvard.ed....u/spierce/news/going
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Geo....scientist/Archive/Ju
http://facstaff.uwa.edu/jmccal....l/Evolution%20of%20t

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420 million years ago, some fish were more medieval. They wore armor, sometimes made of big plates, and sometimes made of interlocking scales. But that armor may actually have served a totally different purpose, one that many animals still use today.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
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References:
Sim, Min Sub, Shuhei Ono, and Matthew T. Hurtgen. "Sulfur isotope evidence for low and fluctuating sulfate levels in the Late Devonian ocean and the potential link with the mass extinction event." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 419 (2015): 52-62.
Sallan, Lauren, and Andrew K. Galimberti. "Body-size reduction in vertebrates following the end-Devonian mass extinction." Science 350.6262 (2015): 812-815.
Afanassieva, O. B. "On the growth and regeneration of the exoskeleton in early jawless vertebrates (Osteostraci, Agnatha)." Doklady Biological Sciences. Vol. 466. No. 1. Pleiades Publishing, 2016.
Anderson, Philip SL, and Mark W. Westneat. "Feeding mechanics and bite force modelling of the skull of Dunkleosteus terrelli, an ancient apex predator." Biology Letters 3.1 (2007): 77-80. http://rsbl.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/3/1
Arsenault, Marius, et al. "New data on the soft tissues and external morphology of the antiarch Bothriolepis canadensis (Whiteaves, 1880), from the Upper Devonian of Miguasha, Quebec." Recent Advances in the Origin and Early Radiation of Vertebrates: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, München (2004): 439-454. http://www.pfeil-verlag.de/wp-....content/uploads/2015
Brazeau, Martin D., and Matt Friedman. "The origin and early phylogenetic history of jawed vertebrates." Nature 520.7548 (2015): 490.
Brett, Carlton E., and Sally E. Walker. "Predators and predation in Paleozoic marine environments." The Paleontological Society Papers 8 (2002): 93-118. https://www.cambridge.org/core..../journals/the-paleon
Carr, ROBERT K. "Paleoecology of Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)." KirtlandIa, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History 57 (2010): 36-55.
Carr, Robert, K. "Placoderm diversity and evolution." Bulletin du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle: Sciences de la terre, paléontologie, géologie, minéralogie. Section C 17 (1995): 85. https://www.researchgate.net/p....rofile/Robert_Carr2/
Chevrinais, Marion, Claire Jacquet, and Richard Cloutier. "Early establishment of vertebrate trophic interactions: Food web structure in Middle to Late Devonian fish assemblages with exceptional fossilization." Bulletin of Geosciences 92.4 (2017): 491-510.
De Vleeschouwer, David, et al. "Timing and pacing of the Late Devonian mass extinction event regulated by eccentricity and obliquity." Nature communications 8.1 (2017): 2268. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02407-1
Denison, Robert H. "The soft anatomy of Bothriolepis." Journal of Paleontology (1941): 553-561. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1298812
Doherty, Alison H., Cameron K. Ghalambor, and Seth W. Donahue. "Evolutionary physiology of bone: bone metabolism in changing environments." Physiology 30.1 (2015): 17-29.
Donoghue, Philip CJ, and Ivan J. Sansom. "Origin and early evolution of vertebrate skeletonization." Microscopy research and technique 59.5 (2002): 352-372.
Giles, Sam, Matt Friedman, and Martin D. Brazeau. "Osteichthyan-like cranial conditions in an Early Devonian stem gnathostome." Nature 520.7545 (2015): 82. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14065

We've hit YouTube's description character limit so you can find all references we used in this video here: https://pastebin.com/raw/XkhEwmyU

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In 1800s, miners began working in exposed deposits of mud near the town of Messel, Germany. They were extracting oil from the rock and along with the oil, they found beautifully preserved fossils of animals from the Eocene. What happened to these Eocene animals? And why were their remains so exquisitely preserved?

Two additional notes!
-At 00:56, we incorrectly labelled a Darwinius fossil as Thaumaturus. Thaumaturus was a fish and the fossil we show is definitely not a fish.
-Also, an additional image credit is required: Dmitry Bogdanov illustrated the fish we used to show scavengers.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Dave, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, phil parker, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Katie Fichtner, Budjarn Lambeth, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan, Jordon Sokoll

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References:
Kling, George W., et al. "The 1986 lake nyos gas disaster in cameroon, west Africa." Science 236.4798 (1987): 169-175.
Vaselli, Orlando, et al. "The “evil’s winds”(mazukus) at Nyiragongo Volcano (Democratic Republic of Congo)." Acta Vulcanol 2003 (2002): 14-15.
Zhang, Youxue. "Dynamics of CO2-driven lake eruptions." Nature 379.6560 (1996): 57.
Storch, Gerhard, Bernard Sigé, and Jörg Habersetzer. "Tachypteron franzeni n. gen., n. sp., earliest emballonurid bat from the Middle Eocene of Messel (Mammalia, Chiroptera)." Paläontologische Zeitschrift 76.2 (2002): 189-199.
Franzen, Jens Lorenz, Christine Aurich, and Jörg Habersetzer. "Description of a well preserved fetus of the European Eocene Equoid Eurohippus messelensis." PloS one 10.10 (2015): e0137985.
Franzen, J. L. "Exceptional preservation of Eocene vertebrates in the lake deposit of Grube Messel (West Germany)." Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 311.1148 (1985): 181-186.
Lenz, Olaf K., et al. "New palynology-based astronomical and revised 40 Ar/39 Ar ages for the Eocene maar lake of Messel (Germany)." International Journal of Earth Sciences 104.3 (2015): 873-889.
Joyce, Walter G., et al. "Caught in the act: the first record of copulating fossil vertebrates." Biology Letters 8.5 (2012): 846-848.
Vitek, Natasha S., et al. "Exceptional three-dimensional preservation and coloration of an originally iridescent fossil feather from the Middle Eocene Messel Oil Shale." Paläontologische Zeitschrift 87.4 (2013): 493-503.
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/720
Koenigswald, Wighart V., Andreas Braun, and Thekla Pfeiffer. "Cyanobacteria and seasonal death: a new taphonomic model for the Eocene Messel lake." Paläontologische Zeitschrift 78.2 (2004): 417-424.
Pirrung, Michael, G. Buchel, and Wolfgang Jacoby. "The Tertiary volcanic basins of Eckfeld, Enspel and Messel (Germany)." ZEITSCHRIFT-DEUTSCHEN GEOLOGISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT 152.1 (2001): 27-60.
Franzen, Jens L., et al. "Complete primate skeleton from the middle Eocene of Messel in Germany: morphology and paleobiology." PLoS one 4.5 (2009): e5723.

The California condor is the biggest flying bird in North America, a title that it has held since the Late Pleistocene Epoch. It's just one example of an organism that we share the planet with today that seems lost in time, out of place in our world.

Thanks as always to Studio 252mya for their wonderful paleoart. You can check out more of their work here: https://252mya.com

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, XULIN GE, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi, Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References: https://bit.ly/2HdL2V7