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Due to an odd quirk of genetics and some unique evolutionary circumstances, two humans who lived at different times in the distant past managed to pass on a very small fraction of their genomes to you. And to me. To all of us.

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References:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC33345
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC32671
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.o....rg/f4ee/6bfac21f39ac
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC58921
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC40321
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC55008
http://haplogroup-a.com/Ancient-Root-AJHG2013.pdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC54183
http://ase.tufts.edu/chemistry..../hhmi/documents/Prot
http://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjorda....n/resources/clarific
https://www.cell.com/action/sh....owPdf?pii=S0960-9822
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC43679
https://www.cell.com/action/sh....owPdf?pii=S0002-9297
https://www.newscientist.com/a....rticle/mg22429904-50
https://www.smithsonianmag.com..../science-nature/no-m
https://www.nature.com/news/ge....netic-adam-and-eve-d
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC55252
https://www.hhmi.org/biointera....ctive/evolution-y-ch
http://www.pnas.org/content/106/38/16018
https://www.nature.com/articles/jhg2012154
https://academic.oup.com/mbe/a....rticle/27/8/1833/988
https://www.nature.com/articles/325031a0
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC26949
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC43815
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28086175

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Temnospondyls were a huge group of amphibians that existed for 210 million years. And calling them ‘diverse’ would be putting it mildly. Yet in the end, two major threats would push them to extinction: the always-changing climate and the amniote egg.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the very cool Temnospondyl reconstructions throughout this episode. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

And thanks as always to Nobumichi Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao. Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References:
Gaining Ground: The Origin and Evolution of Tetrapods, Second Edition by Jennifer A. Clack.
The Rise of Amphibians: 365 Million Years of Evolution by Robert Carroll.
Amphibian Evolution: The Life of Early Land Vertebrates by Rainer R. Schoch.
Earth Before the Dinosaurs by Sebastian Steyer.
How Vertebrates Left the Water by Michel Laurin.
The Late Triassic World: Earth in a Time of Transition, edited by Lawrence H. Tanner.
The Story of Life in 25 Fossils: Tales of Intrepid Explorers and the Wonders of Evolution by Donald R. Prothero.
http://rspb.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/281
https://academic.oup.com/zooli....nnean/article/150/4/
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/256496340
“Fishes and Amphibians From the Late Permian Pedra De Fogo Formation of Northern Brazil” by Cox and Barry, 1991.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4524569
“Lower Triassic Temnospondyli of Tasmania” by Cogsgriff, 1974.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/281863720
https://www.tandfonline.com/do....i/abs/10.1080/027246
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.

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Check out The Great Courses Plus! http://ow.ly/iBxG30egcx9

With its lizard-like appearance and that distinctive sail on it back, Dimetrodon is practically the mascot of the Palaeozoic Era, a time before flowers, birds, mammals, and even crocodiles. But if you take a close look at this sail-backed animal, you might see a little bit of yourself.

The Great Courses Plus is currently available to watch through a web browser to almost anyone in the world and optimized for the US market. The Great Courses Plus is currently working to both optimize the product globally and accept credit card payments globally.

Thanks to Franz Anthony and Studio 252mya for the Dimetrodon illustration. You can find more of Franz's work here: https://252mya.com/gallery/franz-anthony

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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References:
https://evolution-outreach.spr....ingeropen.com/articl
http://www.app.pan.pl/article/....item/app20100039.htm
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi..../abs/10.1080/1042094
http://www.journals.uchicago.e....du/doi/10.1086/65300
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1002/jmor.10

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Tyrannosaurus rex was big, Tyrannosaurus rex was vicious, and Tyrannosaurus rex had tiny arms. The story of how T-Rex lost its arms is, itself, pretty simple. But the story of why it kept those little limbs, and how it used them? Well, that’s a little more complicated.

Thanks as always to Nobumichi Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Addison Baker, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Southpoint, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Dave, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Mario Morales, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, phil parker, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Katie Fichtner, Budjarn Lambeth, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan, Jordon Sokoll

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References:
Baron, Matthew G., David B. Norman, and Paul M. Barrett. "A new hypothesis of dinosaur relationships and early dinosaur evolution." Nature 543.7646 (2017): 501.
Bates, Karl T., and Peter L. Falkingham. "Estimating maximum bite performance in Tyrannosaurus rex using multi-body dynamics." Biology Letters (2012): rsbl20120056.
Brusatte, Stephen L., and Thomas D. Carr. "The phylogeny and evolutionary history of tyrannosauroid dinosaurs." Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 20252.
Burch, Sara. Osteological, Myological, and Phylogenetic Trends of Forelimb Reduction in Nonavian Theropod Dinosaurs. Diss. The Graduate School, Stony Brook University: Stony Brook, NY., 2015.
Carpenter, Kenneth. "Forelimb biomechanics of nonavian theropod dinosaurs in predation." Senckenbergiana lethaea 82.1 (2002): 59-75.
Erickson, Gregory M., et al. "Bite-force estimation for Tyrannosaurus rex from tooth-marked bones." Nature 382.6593 (1996): 706.
Fowler, Denver W., et al. "Reanalysis of “Raptorex kriegsteini”: a juvenile tyrannosaurid dinosaur from Mongolia." PLoS One 6.6 (2011): e21376.
Gillingham, James C., and Jeffrey A. Chambers. "Courtship and pelvic spur use in the Burmese python, Python molurus bivittatus." Copeia 1982.1 (1982): 193-196.
Gould, Stephen Jay, and Richard C. Lewontin. "The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme." Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 205.1161 (1979): 581-598.
Hutchinson, John R., and Stephen M. Gatesy. "Dinosaur locomotion: beyond the bones." Nature 440.7082 (2006): 292.
Makovicky, Peter J. "A new small theropod from the Morrison Formation of Como Bluff, Wyoming." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 17.4 (1997): 755-757.
MIDDLETON, KEVIN M., and STEPHEN M. GATESY. "Theropod forelimb design and evolution." Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 128.2 (2000): 149-187.
Personal communication, Amy Atwater & Dr. John Scanella, Museum of the Rockies
Pontzer, Herman, et al. "Control and function of arm swing in human walking and running." Journal of Experimental Biology 212.4 (2009): 523-534.
Ruiz, Javier, et al. "The hand structure of Carnotaurus sastrei (Theropoda, Abelisauridae): implications for hand diversity and evolution in abelisaurids." Palaeontology 54.6 (2011): 1271-1277.
Sellers, William I., et al. "Investigating the running abilities of Tyrannosaurus rex using stress-constrained multibody dynamic analysis." PeerJ 5 (2017): e3420.
Sereno, Paul C., et al. "Tyrannosaurid skeletal design first evolved at small body size." Science 326.5951 (2009): 418-422.
Stanley, Steven M. “Evidence that the Arms of Tyrannosaurus rex were not functionless but adapted for vicious slashing.” Geological Society of America Annual Meeting 2017.
Sullivan, Corwin, et al. "The asymmetry of the carpal joint and the evolution of wing folding in maniraptoran theropod dinosaurs." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences (2010): rspb20092281.
Therrien, François, and Donald M. Henderson. "My theropod is bigger than yours… or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 27.1 (2007): 108-115. [108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2
USAMI, Yoshiyuki, and Ryuta KINUGASA. "A Possibility of Fast Running of TYRANNOSAURUS." DEStech Transactions on Engineering and Technology Research amma (2017).
Xu, Xing, et al. "A basal tyrannosauroid dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of China." Nature 439.7077 (2006): 715.

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Despite the name, we don’t know where the so-called “hell pigs” belong in the mammalian family tree. They walked on hooves, like pigs do, but had longer legs, almost like deer. They had hunched backs, a bit like rhinos or bison. But as is often, if not always, the case, there is some evolutionary method to this anatomical madness.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Entelodont illustrations! Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

And thanks to Julio Lacerda and Lucas Lima for their wonderful illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Zachary Spencer, Stefan Weber, Ilya Murashov, Charles Kahle, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Alex Yan

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References:
https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1Ie3bYTS7zlmi03

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Ratites have spread to Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and South America. And there are fossils of Ratites in Europe, Asia, and North America too. That’s a lot of ground to cover for birds that can’t fly. So how did Ratites end up all over the world?

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the Lithornithid reconstruction. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Thanks as always to Nobu Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References:
http://www.pnas.org/content/ea....rly/2014/03/14/13149
https://researchcommons.waikat....o.ac.nz/handle/10289
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
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https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01871
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC27916
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC18100
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https://academic.oup.com/bioli....nnean/article/112/4/
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https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462941
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1002/jm

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Back in the late Miocene epoch, there was an island--or maybe a group of islands-- in the Mediterranean Sea that was populated with fantastic giant beasts. It’s a lesson in the very strange, but very real, powers of natural selection.

Thank you to these paleoartists for allowing us to use their wonderful illustrations:
Franz Anthony: https://252mya.com/gallery/franz-anthony
Stanton Fink: https://www.deviantart.com/avancna
Julio Lacerda: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda
Nobu Tamura: https://spinops.blogspot.com/
Ceri Thomas: http://alphynix.tumblr.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, XULIN GE, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi, Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References: https://bit.ly/2VCS4WF

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

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You can check out Google's Science Journal app at https://g.co/sciencejournal

The mammoths fossils found on the Channel Islands off the coast of southern California are much smaller than their relatives found on the mainland. They were so small that they came to be seen as their own species. How did they get there? And why were they so small?

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the mammoth reconstructions throughout this episode. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Thanks to Julio Lacerda and Studio 252mya for the Palaeoloxodon illustrations. You can find more of Julio's work here: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, سلطان الخليفي, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
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References:
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1940&context=usgsstaffpub
https://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/jar....t/prj3/nhm/data/uplo
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/288262862
“Extreme expansion of the olfactory receptor gene repertoire in African elephants and evolutionary dynamics of orthologous gene groups in 13 placental mammals.” Niimura Y, Matsui A, Touhara K. 2014.
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http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.541.6488&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Evolution of Island Mammals: Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands by Alexandra van der Geer, George Lyras, John de Vos and Michael Dermitzakis.
Niimura Y, Matsui A, Touhara K. 2014. Extreme expansion of the olfactory receptor gene repertoire in African elephants and evolutionary dynamics of orthologous gene groups in 13 placental mammals. Genome Res doi: 10.1101/gr.169532.113
https://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/jar....t/prj3/nhm/data/uplo
"Sea level, paleogeography, and archeology on California's Northern
Channel Islands," by Reeder-Myers et al. 2015.
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1940&context=usgsstaffpub
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
http://natural-history.uoregon.....edu/research/paleoc
https://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/jar....t/prj3/nhm/data/uplo
https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1940&context=usgsstaffpub