Today we explore the penultimate ethical theory in this unit: contractarianism. Hank explains Hobbes’ state of nature, and implicit and explicit contracts, as well as the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and the benefits, and costs, of violating contracts.


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BAHHHHHH! Did I scare you? What exactly happens when we get scared? How does our brain make our body react? Just what are Neurotransmitters? In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank takes us to the simplest part of the complex system of our brains and nervous systems; The Neuron.
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Hank and his brother John discuss heredity via the gross example of relative ear wax moistness.

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tags: crashcourse, science, biology, evolution, genetics, heredity, aristotle, bloodlines, gregor mendel, mendelian genetics, mendelian trait, classical genetics, chromosome, gene, polygenic, pleiotropic, allele, ear wax gene, somatic, diploid, gametes, sperm, egg, haploid, polyploid, dominance, dominant, recessive, heterozygous, homozygous, phenotype, punnett square, reginald c. punnett, sex-linked inheritance, autosome Support CrashCourse on Subbable: http://subbable.com/crashcourse

This week Craig Benzine clears up the role of committees in Congress. We’ll talk about standing committees, joint committees, conference committees, and caucuses (and not the candidate-choosing kinds) as well as the staff agencies that help advise these committees and congresspeople. As most bills never even make it to the house and senate floors for a vote, the role of committees, and their respective chairpersons as gatekeeper is pretty important. There’s a lot to demystify here as the legislative process can seem pretty arcane at times, but the model, at least in theory, helps Congress run more efficiently.

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In which John Green examines the French Revolution, and gets into how and why it differed from the American Revolution. Was it the serial authoritarian regimes? The guillotine? The Reign of Terror? All of this and more contributed to the French Revolution not being quite as revolutionary as it could have been. France endured multiple constitutions, the heads of heads of state literally rolled, and then they ended up with a megalomaniacal little emperor by the name of Napoleon. But how did all of this change the world, and how did it lead to other, more successful revolutions around the world? Watch this video and find out. Spoiler alert: Marie Antoinette never said, "Let them eat cake." Sorry.

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Thermidor (which is this month) is Revolutions month on Crash Course!

The American Revolution: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlUiSBXQHCw

Coming soon:

#30 - Haitian Revolution
#31 - Latin American Revolutions
#32 - Industrial Revolution

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How does our knowledge grow? It turns out there are some different ideas about that. Schemas, Four-Stage Theory of Cognitive Development, and Vygotsky's Theory of Scaffolding all play different roles but the basic idea is that children think about things very differently than adults. Hank explains in today's episode of Crash Course Psychology.

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Table of Contents

Schemas, Assimilation & Accommodation 2:39:12

Piaget's Four-Stage Cognitive Development 1:47:02

Sensortimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational,
and Formal Operational Periods 3:48:22

Vygotsky's Theory of Scaffolding 7:45:05

--
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•••SUBBABLE MESSAGE•••

TO: Ciaran
FROM: your sister Jillian

Happy birthday! Hope you enjoy being immortalized via doobly-doo!

***

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Anatomy & Physiology continues with a look at your biggest organ - your skin.

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Table of Contents:

All About Skin 0:22
Epidermis, Dermis, & Hypodermis 1:30
Melanin And Keratin Cells 2:15
Ensure You Get A Good Tattoo 8:01

--

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In which John Green teaches you, at long last, about the most exceptional bunch of empire-building nomads in the history of the world, the Mongols! How did the Mongols go from being a relatively small band of herders who occasionally engaged in some light hunting-gathering to being one of the most formidable fighting forces in the world? It turns out Genghis Khan was a pretty big part of it, but you probably already knew that. The more interesting questions might be, what kind of rulers were they, and what effect did their empire have on the world we know today? Find out, as John FINALLY teaches you about the Mongols.


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Crash Course A&P continues the journey through sensory systems with a look at how your sense of hearing works. We follow sounds as they work there way into the ear where they are registered and transformed into action potentials. This mechanism not only helps you hear but also helps maintain your equilibrium.

Table of Contents
Choclea, Basilar Membrane, and Hair Cells Register and Transduct Sound into Action Potentials
The Vestibular Apparatus Responds to Specific Motions
Keep Your Equilibrium 7:36


***

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Keep dreaming!

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Hank gets down to the nitty gritty about meiosis, the special type of cell division that is necessary for sexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms.

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References for this episode can be found in the Google document here: http://dft.ba/-2wDm

Table of Contents
1) Homologous Chromosome Pairs 2:10
2) Primary Oocytes 3:30
3) Primary Spermatocytes 3:30
4) Meiosis 2:59
5) Interphase I 4:04
6) Prophase I 4:37
a) Crossover 5:05
b) Recombination 5:05
7) Metaphase I 7:53
8) Anaphase I 8:05
9) Telophase I 8:19
10) Prophase II 8:57
11) Metaphase II 9:23
12) Anaphase II 9:28
13) Telophase II 9:32

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In which Hank does some push ups for science and describes the "economy" of cellular respiration and the various processes whereby our bodies create energy in the form of ATP.

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Special thanks go to Stafford Fitness (www.staffordfitness.net) for allowing us to shoot the gym scenes in their facilities.

This video uses sounds from Freesound.org, a list of which can be found, along with the CITATIONS for this episode, in the Google Document here: http://dft.ba/-25Ad

Table of Contents:
1) Cellular Respiration 01:00
2) Adenosine Triphosphate 01:29
3) Glycolysis 4:13
A) Pyruvate Molecules 5:00
B) Anaerobic Respiration/Fermentation 5:33
C) Aerobic Respiration 6:45
4) Krebs Cycle 7:06
A) Acetyl COA 7:38
B) Oxaloacetic Acid 8:21
C) Biolography: Hans Krebs 8:37
D) NAD/FAD 9:48
5) Electron Transport Chain 10:55
6) Check the Math 12:33

TAGS: crashcourse, biology, science, chemistry, energy, atp, adenosine triphosphate, cellular respiration, glucose, adp, hydrolysis, glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain, fermentation, lactic acid, enzyme, hans krebs, citric acid, ATP synthase Support CrashCourse on Subbable: http://subbable.com/crashcourse

•••SUBBABLE MESSAGE•••

TO: Carla
FROM: Christopher

Next stop is whenever. Just be like, "stop."

***

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***

What do you and a sack of batteries have in common? Today, Hank explains.

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Table of Contents:

Ion Channels Regulate Electrochemistry to Create Action Potential 4:51
Resting State 3:22
Depolarization 6:09
Repolarization 7:35
Hyperpolarization 8:00

--

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Our final episodes of Anatomy & Physiology explore the way your body keeps all that complex, intricate stuff alive and healthy -- your immune system. The immune system’s responses begin with physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, and when they’re not enough, there are phagocytes -- the neutrophils and macrophages. It also features the awesomely named natural killer cells and the inflammatory response, and we'll explain how all of these elements work together to save the day if you happen to slip on a banana peel.

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Table of Contents
Physical Barriers Like Skin and Mucous Membranes 2:01
Phagocytes: Neutrophils and Macrophages 3:17
Natural Killer Cells 4:29
Inflammatory Response 5:29

***

"Reformat" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)
Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

***

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Our next stop in our tour of the ethical lay of the land is utilitarianism. With a little help from Batman, Hank explains the principle of utility, and the difference between act and rule utilitarianism.


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Our next stop on our tour of ethics is Kant’s ethics. Today Hank explains hypothetical and categorical imperatives, the universalizability principle, autonomy, and what it means to treat people as ends-in-themselves, rather than as mere means.


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Your heart gets a lot of attention from poets, songwriters, and storytellers, but today Hank's gonna tell you how it really works. The heart’s ventricles, atria, and valves create a pump that maintains both high and low pressure to circulate blood from the heart to the body through your arteries, and bring it back to the heart through your veins. You'll also learn what your blood pressure measurements mean when we talk about systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Table of Contents
Heart's Ventricles, Atria and Valves Create a Pump 3:25
Maintains Both High and Low Pressure 3:25
Blood Circulates From the Heart to the Body Through Your Arteries 4:47
Blood Circulates From the Body to the Heart Through Your Veins 4:49
Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure 7:58

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Check out www.youtube.com/amorsciendi for supplementary content.

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TO: Everyone
FROM: Magnus Krokstad

Keep dreaming!

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In which John Green explores F. Scott Fitzgerald's novel of the Jazz Age, The Great Gatsby. John introduces you to Nick Carraway, Jay Gatsby, Daisy and Tom Buchanan, and the other characters in the novel, and tries to look beyond the surface story to figure out what this thing is ABOUT. Set in the 1920's against a conflicted backdrop of prohibition and excess, The Great Gatsby takes a close look at the American Dream as it existed in Fitzgerald's time. It turns out, it had a lot to do with money and status, and it still does today. John will cover the rich symbolism of the novel, from the distant green light to the pale gold of wealth and decay. Also, Paris Hilton drops by.

Turn on the captions. You'll like it.

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Hank describes mitosis and cytokinesis - the series of processes our cells go through to divide into two identical copies.

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References for this video can be found in the Google document here: http://dft.ba/-2rVV

Table of Contents
1. Mitosis 0:24
2. Interphase 3:27
a) Chromatin 3:37
b) Centrosomes 3:52
3) Prophase 4:14
a) Chromosomes 4:18
b) Chromatid 4:31
c) Microtubules 5:07
4) Metaphase 5:22
a) Motor Proteins 5:36
5) Biolography 6:13
6) Anaphase 9:00
7) Telophase 9:15
8) Cleavage 9:25
9) Cytokinesis 9:36

This video contains the following sounds from Freesound.org:
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"Opening Scotch Whisky.mp3" by Percy Duke

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We're kicking off our exploration of muscles with a look at the complex and important relationship between actin and myosin. Your smooth, cardiac, and skeletal muscles create movement by contracting and releasing in a process called the sliding filament model. Your skeletal muscles are constructed like a rope made of bundles of protein fibers, and that the smallest strands are your actin and myosin myofilaments. Its their use of calcium and ATP that causes the binding and unbinding that makes sarcomeres contract and relax.

Table of Contents
Smooth, Cardiac, and Skeletal Muscles Create Movement 1:18
Sliding Filament Model 4:52
Skeletal Muscles Are Made of Bundles of Protein Fibers 2:40
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments 3:54
Calcium and ATP Cause the Binding and Unbinding 5:05

***

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

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***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: SEM students
FROM: Mrs. S

You are confident and courageous! I believe in you! DFTBA!

--

TO: Zachary
FROM: She who gave you life!

You, like the Mongols, will always be the exception.

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

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Now that we’ve left behind the philosophy of religion, it’s time to start exploring what other ways might exist to find meaning in the world. Today we explore essentialism and its response: existentialism. We’ll also learn about Jean-Paul Sartre and his ideas about how to find meaning in a meaningless world.

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--

Taylor Swift drawing by Joezart: http://joezart.deviantart.com/....art/Taylor-Swift-569 Graduate and proud parents by Christopher Brown: https://www.flickr.com/photos/....xopherbrown/56211258
All other images and video either public domain or via VideoBlocks, Unsplash, or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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