Over 600 million years ago, sheets of ice coated our planet on both land and sea. How did this happen? And most importantly for us, why did the planet eventually thaw again? The evidence for Snowball Earth is written on every continent today.

Thanks to Julio Lacerda and Franz Anthony from Studio 252mya for their wonderful illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

Special thanks to Judy Pu for answering our questions about Snowball Earth.

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References: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1dRTf9IcH_1vA5S

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The first era of our current eon, the Paleozoic Era, is probably the most deceptively fascinating time in Earth’s history. With near constant revolutions in life, punctuated by catastrophic extinctions, it is also one of the most chaotic.

Correction! At 9:19, we erroneously refer to Dimetrodon as an herbivore. It was definitely a carnivore. We even made a whole video about Dimetrodon and their carnivorous ways in a previous episode: https://youtu.be/SR3OOP9mImI Thanks to everyone who pointed out our error!

Thanks to Studio 252mya for their illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/licensing

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References:
https://www.nature.com/news/wh....at-sparked-the-cambr
http://science.sciencemag.org/....content/341/6152/135
https://academic.oup.com/icb/a....rticle/43/1/157/6045
https://zoologicalletters.biom....edcentral.com/articl
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca..../en/science/burgess-
http://austhrutime.com/cambrian_period.htm
http://dev.biologists.org/content/132/11/2503
https://park.org/Canada/Museum..../extinction/camcause
https://ac-els-cdn-com.libproxy.mtroyal.ca/S0031018210003184/1-s2.0-S0031018210003184-main.pdf?_tid=a7fd64d8-f408-11e7-96fe-00000aab0f27&acdnat=1515370547_3b81bba2e15582b09e40465c75c9c419
http://www.nature.com.libproxy.....mtroyal.ca/articles
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1502-
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1502-
https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/....disappeared-species/
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
https://web.archive.org/web/19....991009125017/http://
https://www.newscientist.com/a....rticle/dn21417-first
https://link.springer.com/arti....cle/10.1134/S0001437
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/46817981_
https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1066p/report.pdf
http://journals.plos.org/ploso....ne/article?id=10.137
http://blogs.discovermagazine.....com/d-brief/2013/09/
http://sciencythoughts.blogspo....t.ca/2013/12/a-scorp
https://www.newscientist.com/a....rticle/dn18346-oldes
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1420-
https://www.nature.com/article....s/nature10969?messag
https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0960982215009276/1-s2.0-S0960982215009276-main.pdf?_tid=7f5f51ce-0486-11e8-9da1-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1517183815_9a41800ae5d0f975bf3b4dfb1f81fdac
https://books.google.com/books?id=hFLmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=first+terrestrial+arachnids&source=bl&ots=tyPhAKSwrP&sig=xK1ZdvR6toJsYAhfIUHUQmlWFks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixx-747fvYAhUE2WMKHZQOC8MQ6AEIiwEwEQ#v=onepage&q=first%20terrestrial%20arachnids&f=false

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In the Eocene Epoch, there was a reptile that had teeth equipped for biting through flesh, its hind legs were a lot longer than its front legs and instead of claws, its toes were each capped with hooves. How did this living nightmare come to evolve?

Thank you to these paleoartists for allowing us to use their wonderful illustrations:
Ceri Thomas: http://alphynix.tumblr.com/
Fabrizio De Rossi: https://252mya.com/collections..../shop/fabrizio-de-ro
Nobu Tamura: https://spinops.blogspot.com/
Esther van Hulsen: https://www.esthervanhulsen.com/
Stanton Fink: https://www.deviantart.com/avancna

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References: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/10sSrksRBIWihmo

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Synapsids were the world’s first-ever terrestrial megafauna but the vast majority of these giants were doomed to extinction. However some lived on, keeping a low profile among the dinosaurs. And now our world is the way it is because of the time when the synapsids struck back.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Synapsid illustration (including Bulbasaurus!)! Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

And thanks as always to Studio 252mya for their wonderful illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

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All of today’s big cat species evolved less than 11 million years ago and yet their evolutionary history remains an almost total mystery. But scientists have recently discovered a major clue about the origins of the big cats, one that could provide a whole new starting place for solving this puzzle.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Panthera blytheae and Panthera atrox! Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

THANK YOU to our amazing Cenozoic Patreon patron, Patrick Seifert!!

And to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Stefan Weber, Ilya Murashov, Charles Kahle, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References:
Tseng, Z. J. et al. (2014). Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281: 20132686.
Johnson, W. et al. (2006). The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: a genetic assessment. Science 311: 73-77.
Davis, B. et al. (2010). Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, Panthera (Carnivora: Felidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56: 64-76.
Turner, A. and Antón, M. (1997). The big cats and their fossil relatives. New York: Columbia University Press.
Werderlin, L. and Lewis, M.E. (2005). Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: species richness and turnover patterns. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144: 121–144.
Zhou Y. et al. (2017). Comprehensive species set revealing the phylogeny and biogeography of Feliformia (Mammalia, Carnivora) based on mitochondrial DNA. PLoS ONE 12(3): e0174902.

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

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The marine reptiles Ichthyosaurs arose after The Great Dying, which wiped out at least 90 percent of life in the oceans, changing the seas forever and triggering a new evolutionary arms race between predator and prey.

Thank you to these paleoartists for allowing us to use their wonderful illustrations:
Julio Lacerda: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda
Ceri Thomas: http://alphynix.tumblr.com/
Dmitry Bogdanov: https://www.deviantart.com/dibgd
Nobu Tamura: https://spinops.blogspot.com/
Franz Anthony: https://252mya.com/gallery/franz-anthony
Nikolay Zverkov: https://www.deviantart.com/ngzver

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References:
https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1VIHx9s6bjXg-LC

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Blood is one of the most revolutionary features in our evolutionary history. Over hundreds of millions of years, the way in which blood does its job has changed over and over again. As a result, we animals have our familiar red blood. But also blue blood. And purple, and green, and even white.

Thanks to Julio Lacerda, Lucas Lima, Franz Anthony of Studio 252mya for several illustrations throughout this episode. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

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References:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC53784
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC30974
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17120194
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijz/2009/301284/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www2.estrellamountain.....edu/faculty/farabee/
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.456.5625&rep=rep1&type=pdf
https://books.google.com/books?id=pKlVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35&lpg=PA35&dq=origin+of+blood+triploblasts&source=bl&ots=OofsZKI3SN&sig=I6Y92wODJah2vWgtPShcnPtR5eI&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZ5Lmz6NveAhVPslMKHdOeCSoQ6AEwDXoECAMQAQ#v=onepage&q=origin%20of%20blood%20triploblasts&f=false
http://thebiologyprimer.com/th....e-origin-and-evoluti
https://www.researchgate.net/p....rofile/Thorsten_Burm
https://courses.lumenlearning.....com/wm-biology2/chap
http://jeb.biologists.org/cont....ent/jexbio/201/8/109
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC35430
https://www.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.2.569?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed
https://www.britannica.com/sci....ence/circulatory-sys
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/....news/2014/april/earl
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC26142
https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms4560
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
http://www.nrcresearchpress.co....m/doi/10.1139/e06-01
https://www.britannica.com/animal/mollusk#ref35787
https://www.forbes.com/sites/s....haenamontanari/2016/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3....0158158?seq=3#metada
http://www.sci-news.com/paleon....tology/science-fossi
https://academic.oup.com/icb/a....rticle/55/5/792/6040
https://www.mdpi.com/2308-3425/2/1/2/pdf

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We started a crowd funding to make it possible to make more than one video every four weeks.

http://www.patreon.com/Kurzgesagt

Patreon is a monthly subscription service that you can use to support the online creators you like!

Kurzgesagt has gone through the roof in terms of views and subscriptions and it already is way to time intensive that we can properly take care of everything.
That's the reason why we still haven't proper subtitles (despite of so many of you guys offering to make them for us!), that's why our website is still a mess and we take weeks to reply to emails. And of course that we only make one video each month and never know when we will be finished.

So, to solve this hot mess, we are trying to make Kurzgesagt at least a viable "part time job" so we can use "daytime" to catch up with everything and make more stuff while not risking our livelihood.

Lots of you guys wrote us in the last few months and wanted to support us, well, now you can! If you don't want to or don't have the money to spare, no worries!

KURZGESAGT WILL ALWAYS BE A SEMI MONTHLY THING THAT IS FREE FOR EVERYBODY!

We really appreciate everyone who helps us out and we officially give you moral absolution for using add block if you fund us.

We didn't start this whole operation to get rich but because it is our passion. And we continue it because it feels right and because of the feedback we get from all of you. It has been a lot of work and a lot of fun.
Thank you so much everybody. Words can not express how we feel about Kurzgesagt and the amazing people it attracted. Thank you for your attention. We are humbled and amazed by all of you.

Help us caption & translate this video!

http://www.youtube.com/timedtext_cs_panel?c=UCsXVk37bltHxD1rDPwtNM8Q&tab=2