Today Phil explains how telescopes work and offers up some astronomical shopping advice.

--

How Telescopes Work 1:07
Refractors vs Reflectors 2:50
Technology and the Light Spectrum 7:45

--

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Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....alileo_Galilei#media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H....uman_eye#mediaviewer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R....efracting_telescope#
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Positive_le
http://www.eso.org/public/imag....es/yb_vlt_moon_cnn_c
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J....upiter#mediaviewer/F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W....ide_Field_and_Planet
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Prime_focus
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Inspection_
https://www.youtube.com/watch?....v=ui6ernRFxOg#t=2m22
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W....illiam_Herschel#medi
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Grand_Canyo
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File_talk:EM_spe
https://www.youtube.com/watch?....v=RqX9vLj3_7w#t=4m52
http://pprc.qmul.ac.uk/~still/....wordpress/?page_id=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V....ERITAS#mediaviewer/F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....strophotography#medi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....strophotography#medi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:PIA18593-Mars-Co
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:NASA-HS201427a-H
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/2/2b
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/thum
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/5/56
http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/

We’ve covered a lot of incredible stuff, but this week we’re talking about the weirdest objects in space: BLACK HOLES. Stellar mass black holes form when a very massive star dies, and its core collapses. The core has to be more than about 2.8 times the Sun’s mass to form a black hole. Black holes come in different sizes, but for all of them, the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, so nothing can escape, not matter or light. They don’t wander the Universe gobbling everything down around them; their gravity is only really intense very close to them. Tides near a stellar mass black hole will spaghettify you, and time slows down when you get near a black hole — not that this helps much if you’re falling in.

Crash Course Astronomy Poster: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

Table of Contents
How Stellar Mass Black Holes Are Formed 1:03
The Core 1:43
Nothing Can Escape Once It’s Inside 2:29
Gravity Intensifies The Closer You Get 3:33
Spaghettification 6:01
Time Will Slow Down Near A Black Hole 8:01

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
White Dwarf Pulses Like a Pulsar http://www.nasa.gov/centers/go....ddard/news/topstory/ [credit: NASA, Casey Reed]
Swift Reveals New Phenomenon in a Neutron Star http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/swift/bursts/new [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Black Holes - Monsters in Space https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....File:Black_Holes_-_M [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech, Wikimedia Commons]
What if the Sun became a black hole? (artist's impression) http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hubblecast43g [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser)]
Black Hole Animation http://chandra.harvard.edu/pho....to/2003/0203long/ani [credit: NASA/SAO/CXC/D.Berry]
Star Destroyer http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) and NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Black hole deforms space http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hst15_blackho [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Black hole close-up (artist's impression) http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic0211c/ [credit: European Space Agency, NASA and Felix Mirabel (the French Atomic Energy Commission & the Institute for Astronomy and Space Physics/Conicet of Argentina)]

•••SUBBABLE MESSAGE•••

TO: Jordan Schoonover
FROM: Mom, Dad & Madison

Happy Birthday Jordan! We love you sweetheart!!

***

You can directly support Crash Course at http://www.subbable.com/crashcourse Subscribe for as little as $0 to keep up with everything we're doing. Also, if you can afford to pay a little every month, it really helps us to continue producing great content.

***

In this episode of Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology, Hank gives you a brief history of histology and introduces you to the different types and functions of your body's tissues.

--

Table of Contents:

Nervous, Muscle, Epithelial & Connective Tissues 1:23
History of Histology 2:07
Nervous Tissue Forms the Nervous System 5:17
Muscle Tissue Facilitates All Your Movements 7:00
Identifying Samples 9:03

--

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Hank resists the urge to devour a slice of pizza so that he can walk you through the way we experience our major special senses. It all boils down to one thing: sensory cells translating chemical, electromagnetic, and mechanical stimuli into action potentials that our nervous system can make sense of. Today we're focusing on smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation), which are chemical senses that call on chemoreceptors. As usual, we'll begin with a quick look at how these things can go wrong.

Table of Contents
Anatomy and Physiology of Smell 2:26
The Olfactory Sensory Neurons 3:01
Receptors → Glomerulus → Mitral Cells → Brain 3:47
Taste Receptor Epithelial Cells 7:30
Receptors Trigger Action Potentials to Four Different Cranial Nerves 8:26


***

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly (and have your contributions matched by Patreon through April 30th!) by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

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***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: Rachel
FROM: Alex

I Love You!

--

TO: Crash Course
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I loved Subbable. I'll see you on Patreon.

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

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Today Phil explains that YES, there are other planets out there and astonomers have a lot of methods for detecting them. Nearly 2000 have been found so far. The most successful method is using transits, where a planet physically passes in front of its parent star, producing a measurable dip in the star’s light. Another is to measuring the Doppler shift in a star’s light due to reflexive motion as the planet orbits. Exoplanets appear to orbit nearly every kind of star, and we’ve even found planets that are the same size as Earth. We think there may be many billions of Earth-like planets in our galaxy.

This is a reupload of last week's episode to correct an error in the way we covered reflexive motion.
For more information on the change and reflexive motion, you can check out Phil's blog: http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2015/08/0
--

Table of Contents
Other Planets Orbit Other Stars 2:10
Nearly 2000 Have Been Found 9:29
Transits 5:44
Doppler Shift 3:30
Exoplanets Orbit Nearly Every Kind of Star 8:44
Billions of Earth-Like Planets 9:33

--

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Stars as viewed from ISS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TOQrx-7qgak [credit: Alex Rivest & NASA]
Jupiter http://www.nasa.gov/centers/go....ddard/multimedia/lar [credit: NASA]
Mars http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/multi....media/images/?ImageI [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS]
Mercury http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?Category=Planets&IM_ID=7543 [credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington]
Earth https://www.nasa.gov/topics/ea....rth/overview/index.h [credit: NASA]
Uranus http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA18182 [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Lost in the Glare http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/23 [credit: NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]
Reflexive Motion gifs http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/barycenter/en/ [credit: NASA]
Artist's conception of PSR B1257+12's system of planets https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Pulsar_planet#/media [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (SSC)]
Artist’s impression of the exoplanet 51 Pegasi b (image) http://www.eso.org/public/usa/images/eso1517a/ [credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser/Nick Risinger (skysurvey.org)]
Artist’s impression of the exoplanet 51 Pegasi b (video) http://www.eso.org/public/usa/videos/eso1517b/ [credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser/Nick Risinger (skysurvey.org)]
Kepler Transit Graph http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/22 [credit NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]
Kepler “Beauty Shot” http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/2 [credit: NASA/Kepler mission/Dana Berry]
The Brown Dwarf 2M1207 and its Planetary Companion https://www.eso.org/public/usa/images/eso0515a/ [credit: ESO]
Beta Pictoris b http://www.eso.org/public/arch....ives/images/screen/e [credit: ESO]
A size comparison of the planets in the Kepler-37 system and objects in the Solar System http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA16694 [credit: NASA/Ames/JPL-Caltech]
Water World http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/39 [credit: NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]
Earth-like World http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/42 [credit: NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]

In which John Green teaches you about Imperialism. In the late 19th century, the great powers of Europe were running around the world obtaining colonial possessions, especially in Africa and Asia. The United States, which as a young country was especially suceptible to peer pressure, followed along and snapped up some colonies of its own. The US saw that Spain's hold on its empire was weak, and like some kind of expansionist predator, it jumped into the Cuban War for Independence and turned it into the Spanish-Cuban-Phillipino-American War, which usually just gets called the Spanish-American War. John will tell you how America turned this war into colonial possessions like Puerto Rico, The Philippines, and almost even got to keep Cuba. The US was busy in the Pacific as well, wresting control of Hawaii from the Hawaiians. All this and more in a globe-trotting, oppressing episode of Crash Course US History.

Our Subbable Dooblydoo message today is from James Williams. He writes, "Gracie Mckenna, luck is, indeed, for suckers."

You can support Crash Course directly by subscribing and pledging a monthly gift at https://www.patreon.com/crashcourse. You could even have your own message in the Dooblydoo. If you subscribed via Subbable when the service first launched, you may need to go back and resubscribe. Thanks for your support.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. As America transitioned from the 19th to the 20th century, she experimented with imperialism through war and annexation; one of the most lasting effects of this time was the annexation of Hawaii, America's 50th state: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/the-1897-petition-
America’s imperial aims continued for decades, particularly with the Monroe Doctrine: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/the-monroe-doctrin

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The majority of the universe is made up of a currently mysterious entity that pervades space: dark energy. We don’t know exactly what it is, but we do know that dark energy accelerates the expansion of space. We think this means the Universe will expand forever, even as our view of it shrinks while space expands faster all the time.

Crash Course Astronomy Poster: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

GEOMETRY OF THE UNIVERSE RESOURCES
Geometry:
http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/c....osmo/lectures/lec15.
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov..../docs/StarChild/ques

Expanding faster than light:
http://curious.astro.cornell.e....du/legal-information

General expansion:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Metric_expansion_of_

--

Table of Contents
Majority of the Universe is Made of Dark Energy 4:35
Dark Energy Accelerates the Expansion of Space 3:42
We Think The Universe Will Expand Forever 5:20

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
The Big Bang http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA]
Collision Scenario for Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy Encounter http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/654284main_i122 [credit: NASA; ESA; A. Feild and R. van der Marel, STScI]
Artist's impression of vampire star http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/astro_bn/ [credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser]
Host Galaxies of Distant Supernovae http://www.nasa.gov/sites/defa....ult/files/images/593 [credit: NASA, ESA, and A. Riess (STScl)]
Dark Energy Expands the Universe http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA]
Expanding Universe http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hst15_expandi [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2014 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, H. Teplitz and M. Rafelski (IPAC/Caltech), A. Koekemoer (STScI), R. Windhorst (Arizona State University), and Z. Levay (STScI)]

In which Jacob Clifford and Adriene Hill launch a brand new Crash Course on Economics! So, what is economics? Good question. It's not necessarily about money, or stock markets, or trade. It's about people and choices. What, you may ask, does that mean. We'll show you. Let's get started!

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Anna-Ester Volozh, Robert Kunz, Jason A Saslow, Christian Ludvigsen, Chris Peters, Brad Wardell, Beatrice Jin, Roger C. Rocha, Eric Knight, Jessica Simmons, Jeffrey Thompson, Elliot Beter, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Ian Dundore, Jessica Wode, SR Foxley, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, Steve Marshall

TO: My Students
FROM: Mrs. Culp

Culpzilla's students are amazing! You guys rock!

TO: Everyone
FROM: Pankaj

DFTBA and keep being the exception like the Mongols.

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

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In which John Green teaches you about globalization, a subject so epic, so, um, global, it requires two videos. In this video, John follows the surprisingly complex path of t-shirt as it criss-crosses the world before coming to rest on your doorstep, and eventually in your dresser. (Unless you're one of those people who never puts their laundry away and lives out of a laundry basket. If that's the case, shame on you.) Anyway, the story of the t-shirt and its manufacture in far-flung places like China, Guatemala, and India is a microcosm of what's going on in the global economy. Globalization is a bit of a mixed bag, and there have definitely been winners and losers along the way. In this episode John will talk about some of the benefits that have come along with it. Next week, he'll get into some of the less-positive side effects of globalization.

Also, you should turn on the captions.

Thanks to Destin from Smarter Every Day for the cotton footage! http://www.youtube.com/destinws2

Crash Course World History is now available on DVD! http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-world-

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In which John Green teaches about filthy, filthy lucre. Money. And Debt. So, what is money? And what is it for? And why do we use money? And why does it all disappear so quickly after payday? John will look into 75% of these questions, and if he doesn't come up with answers, we'll get into some interesting ideas along the way, at least. This week we'll investigate whether money displaces barter, then leads to war, slavery, and what we think of as civilized social orders. We'll also see what old Adam Smith thinks of big money, no whammies, this week on Crash Course.

We'll also talk quite a bit about Debt: The First 5000 Years by David Graeber. You can buy that book here: http://dft.ba/-debt5000

You can directly support Crash Course at https://www.patreon.com/crashcourse Subscribe for as little as $0 to keep up with everything we're doing. Also, if you can afford to pay a little every month, it really helps us to continue producing great content.

Venus is a gorgeous naked-eye planet, hanging like a diamond in the twilight -- but it’s beauty is best looked at from afar. Even though Mercury is closer to the sun, Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system, due to a runaway greenhouse effect, and has the most volcanic activity in the solar system. Its north and south poles were flipped, causing it to rotate backwards and making for very strange days on this beautiful but inhospitable world.

This episode is brought to you by Squarespace http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

--

Table of Contents
Venus’s Size and Atmosphere 3:09
Hottest Planet in the Solar System 4:04
Slow Clockwise Rotation 6:02
Tremendous Volcanic Activity 8:31

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Naked-eye Venus photo taken by Phil Plait
Phases of Venus http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Phases-of-V [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
2012 Venus Transit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34mXua1n_FQ [credit: NASA]
Black drop effect in 2004 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B....lack_drop_effect#med [credit: Vesta]
Venus Transit http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/657111main_1-SO [credit: JAXA/NASA/Lockheed Martin]
Venus in real colors http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V....enus#mediaviewer/Fil [credit: NASA]
Earth http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=57723 [credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Image by Reto Stöckli]
Venus http://www.msss.com/images/sci....ence/venus180hem_mag [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Magellan Project]
Atmospheric Drag on Venus https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aRAonBSIBck [credit: NASA]
Lakshmi Planum and Maxwell Montes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V....enus_snow#mediaviewe [credit: NASA/JPL]
Artist's impression of the surface of Venus http://sci.esa.int/science-e-m....edia/img/59/VenusSur [credit: ESA]
Venera Images http://planetimages.blogspot.com/ [credit: Ted Stryk]
Venus Globe http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V....enus#mediaviewer/Fil [credit: NASA]
Impact craters on the surface of Venus http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V....enus#mediaviewer/Fil [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Idunn Mons http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.g....ov/figures/PIA13001_ [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ESA]
Pancake Volcanoes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P....ancake_dome#mediavie [credit: NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory]

You can directly support Crash Course at https://www.patreon.com/crashcourse Subscribe for as little as $0 to keep up with everything we're doing. Free is nice, but if you can afford to pay a little every month, it really helps us to continue producing this content.

In which John Green teaches you about the New Deal, which was president Franklin D. Roosevelt's plan to pull the united States out of the Great Depression of the 1930's. Did it work? Maybe. John will teach you about some of the most effective and some of the best known programs of the New Deal. They weren't always the same thing. John will tell you who supported the New Deal, and who opposed it. He'll also get into how the New Deal changed the relationship between the government and citizens, and will even reveal just how the Depression ended. (hint: it was war spending)

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. President Roosevelt developed his New Deal policies to ease the economic burdens of the Great Depression, a grim reality he began to tackle with his first fireside chat: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/president-roosevel
In his Economic Bill of Rights, FDR tried to get the country to trust its banks again: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/the-economic-bill-

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In which John Green kicks off Crash Course US History! Why, you may ask, are we covering US History, and not more World History, or the history of some other country, or the very specific history of your home region? Well, the reasons are many. But, like it or not, the United States has probably meddled in your country to some degree in the last 236 years or so, and that means US History is relevant all over the world. In episode 1, John talks about the Native Americans who lived in what is now the US prior to European contact. This is a history class, not archaeology, so we're mainly going to cover written history. That means we start with the first sustained European settlement in North America, and that means the Spanish. The Spanish have a long history with the natives of the Americas, and not all of it was positive. The Spanish were definitely not peaceful colonizers, but what colonizers are peaceful? Colonization pretty much always results in an antagonistic relationship with the locals. John teaches you about early Spanish explorers, settlements, and what happened when they didn't get along with the indigenous people. The story of their rocky relations has been called the Black Legend. Which is not a positive legend.

Turn on the captions. You'll like it!

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Want more videos about psychology every Monday and Thursday? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

So how do we apply the scientific method to psychological research? Lots of ways, but today Hank talks about case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys and interviews, and experimentation. Also he covers different kinds of bias in experimentation and how research practices help us avoid them.
--
Table of Contents

The Scientific Method 2:06
Case Studies 3:05
Naturalistic Observation 3:48
Surveys and Interviews 4:15
Experimentation 6:35
Proper Research Practices 8:40
--
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How would you measure a personality? What, exactly, is the self? Well, as you've come to expect, it's not that easy to nail down an answer for those questions. Whether you're into blood, bile, earth, wind, fire, or those Buzzfeed questionnaires, there are LOTS of ways to get at who we are and why.

--
Table of Contents

Trait & Social-Cognitive Personality 01:35:01
Measuring Personality 02:57:03
Who or What is the Self? 09:16:14
How Self Esteem Works 09:42:04

--
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Today Phil explores the world of tides! What is the relationship between tides and gravity? How do planets and their moons become tidally locked? What would happen if you were 300km tall? Important questions.

--

Gravity Over Distance 0:44
Tidal Force Parameters 1:35
Battle of the Bulges 2:55
Tidal Lock 6:17

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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In which John Green teaches you about the early days of the Civil Rights movement. By way of providing context for this, John also talks a bit about wider America in the 1950s. The 1950s are a deeply nostalgic period for many Americans, but there is more than a little idealizing going on here. The 1950s were a time of economic expansion, new technologies, and a growing middle class. America was becoming a suburban nation thanks to cookie-cutter housing developments like the Levittowns. While the white working class saw their wages and status improve, the proverbial rising tide wasn't lifting all proverbial ships. A lot of people were excluded from the prosperity of the 1950s. Segregation in housing and education made for some serious inequality for African Americans. As a result, the Civil Rights movement was born. John will talk about the early careers of Martin Luther King, Thurgood Marshall, Rosa Parks, and even Earl Warren. He'll teach you about Brown v Board of Education, and the lesser known Mendez vs Westminster, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and all kinds of other stuff.

Crash Course World History is now available on DVD! Visit http://dft.ba/-CCWHDVD to buy a set for your home or classroom.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. The Civil Rights Movement gained national attention with the murder of Emmett Till in 1955: https://www.commonlit.org/texts/emmett-till
That same year, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus, beginning the Montgomery bus boycott: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/rosa-parks-and-the
A young preacher named Martin Luther King Jr. gained national fame rallying support for the Montgomery bus boycott: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/martin-luther-king
The end of segregation also began in the South with the Showdown in Little Rock in 1957: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/showdown-in-little

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In which John Green teaches you about the War of 1812. The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and its former colonial overlord England. It started in, you guessed it 1812. The war lasted until 1815, and it resolved very little. John will take you through the causes of the war, tell you a little bit about the fighting itself, and get into just why the US Army couldn't manage to make any progress invading Canada. And yes, Canadians, we're going to talk about the White House getting burned down. The upshot: no territory changed hands, and most of the other bones of contention were solved prior to the actual war. Although nothing much changed for the US and England, the Native Americans were the big losers. Tecumseh was killed, and the Indian tribes lost a lot of territory. Watch as John lays it all out for you. Also, check out #1812problems on Twitter. It's awesome.

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In which John Green teaches you about the European Renaissance. European learning changed the world in the 15th and 16th century, but was it a cultural revolution, or an evolution? We'd argue that any cultural shift that occurs over a couple of hundred years isn't too overwhelming to the people who live through it. In retrospect though, the cultural bloom in Europe during this time was pretty impressive. In addition to investigating what caused the Renaissance and who benefitted from the changes that occurred, John will tell you just how the Ninja Turtles got mixed up in all this.

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In which John Green teaches you about Iran's Revolutions. Yes, revolutions plural. What was the1979 Iranian Revolution about? It turns out, Iran has a pretty long history of unrest in order to put power in the hands of the people, and the most recent revolution in 1979 was, at least at first, not necessarily about creating an Islamic state. It certainly turned out to be about that, but it was initially just about people who wanted to get rid of an oppressive regime. Listen up as John teaches you about Iran's long history of revolution.

Citation 1: Caryl, Christian. Strange Rebels: 1979 and the Birth of the 21st Century. New York, Basic Books. 2014, p. 11
Citation 2: Axworthy, Michael, Revolutionary Iran: A History of the Islamic Republic. Oxford U. Press. 2014, p. 62
Citation 3: Quoted in Axworthy, p. 81
Citation 4: Axworthy, p. 114
Citation 5: Axworthy, p. 163