What happens when microbes talk to your brain?

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How Bacteria Rule Over Your Body – The Microbiome

Modern life would be impossible without plastic – but we have long since lost control over our invention. Why has plastic turned into a problem and what do we know about its dangers?

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Over the last few years eating meat has increasingly been associated with health risks, like heart disease, cancer and an early death. How unhealthy is meat really?

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The current crisis in Iraq explained in under 5 minutes.

There is war in Iraq? Again? And the US and Iran are talking about working together? And who is this ISIS Terrorist group that is all over the news? And Religion? Oh dear... When exactly has the world gone mad again?

It is not possible to explain a complicated topic like this without simplification. We are very aware that this video is not painting a full picture of the situation. But we hope that it may lay the foundation on which you can try to do your own research and understand how horribly Fu**ed up the whole situation is.

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Iraq Explained -- ISIS, Syria and War.

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Humans. We have been around for a while now. When we think about our past we think about ancient civilizations, the pyramids, stuff like that. But this is only a tiny, tiny part of our history.

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What Happened Before History? Human Origins

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Most Conspiracy Theories are stupid. By the power of the internet they spread like wildfire and often poison discussions. But there is hope – we developed a way to debunk conspiracies in just a few seconds…

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The Ultimate Conspiracy Debunker

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The Ultimate Conspiracy Debunker




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All of today’s big cat species evolved less than 11 million years ago and yet their evolutionary history remains an almost total mystery. But scientists have recently discovered a major clue about the origins of the big cats, one that could provide a whole new starting place for solving this puzzle.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Panthera blytheae and Panthera atrox! Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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And to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

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References:
Tseng, Z. J. et al. (2014). Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281: 20132686.
Johnson, W. et al. (2006). The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: a genetic assessment. Science 311: 73-77.
Davis, B. et al. (2010). Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats, Panthera (Carnivora: Felidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56: 64-76.
Turner, A. and Antón, M. (1997). The big cats and their fossil relatives. New York: Columbia University Press.
Werderlin, L. and Lewis, M.E. (2005). Plio-Pleistocene Carnivora of eastern Africa: species richness and turnover patterns. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 144: 121–144.
Zhou Y. et al. (2017). Comprehensive species set revealing the phylogeny and biogeography of Feliformia (Mammalia, Carnivora) based on mitochondrial DNA. PLoS ONE 12(3): e0174902.

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Synapsids were the world’s first-ever terrestrial megafauna but the vast majority of these giants were doomed to extinction. However some lived on, keeping a low profile among the dinosaurs. And now our world is the way it is because of the time when the synapsids struck back.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Synapsid illustration (including Bulbasaurus!)! Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

And thanks as always to Studio 252mya for their wonderful illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

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References: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1YbTns-AcONtRWN

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In the Eocene Epoch, there was a reptile that had teeth equipped for biting through flesh, its hind legs were a lot longer than its front legs and instead of claws, its toes were each capped with hooves. How did this living nightmare come to evolve?

Thank you to these paleoartists for allowing us to use their wonderful illustrations:
Ceri Thomas: http://alphynix.tumblr.com/
Fabrizio De Rossi: https://252mya.com/collections..../shop/fabrizio-de-ro
Nobu Tamura: https://spinops.blogspot.com/
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Stanton Fink: https://www.deviantart.com/avancna

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Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
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References: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/10sSrksRBIWihmo

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The first era of our current eon, the Paleozoic Era, is probably the most deceptively fascinating time in Earth’s history. With near constant revolutions in life, punctuated by catastrophic extinctions, it is also one of the most chaotic.

Correction! At 9:19, we erroneously refer to Dimetrodon as an herbivore. It was definitely a carnivore. We even made a whole video about Dimetrodon and their carnivorous ways in a previous episode: https://youtu.be/SR3OOP9mImI Thanks to everyone who pointed out our error!

Thanks to Studio 252mya for their illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/licensing

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References:
https://www.nature.com/news/wh....at-sparked-the-cambr
http://science.sciencemag.org/....content/341/6152/135
https://academic.oup.com/icb/a....rticle/43/1/157/6045
https://zoologicalletters.biom....edcentral.com/articl
http://burgess-shale.rom.on.ca..../en/science/burgess-
http://austhrutime.com/cambrian_period.htm
http://dev.biologists.org/content/132/11/2503
https://park.org/Canada/Museum..../extinction/camcause
https://ac-els-cdn-com.libproxy.mtroyal.ca/S0031018210003184/1-s2.0-S0031018210003184-main.pdf?_tid=a7fd64d8-f408-11e7-96fe-00000aab0f27&acdnat=1515370547_3b81bba2e15582b09e40465c75c9c419
http://www.nature.com.libproxy.....mtroyal.ca/articles
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1502-
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1502-
https://www.fossilhunters.xyz/....disappeared-species/
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
https://web.archive.org/web/19....991009125017/http://
https://www.newscientist.com/a....rticle/dn21417-first
https://link.springer.com/arti....cle/10.1134/S0001437
http://www.sciencedirect.com/s....cience/article/pii/S
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/46817981_
https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1066p/report.pdf
http://journals.plos.org/ploso....ne/article?id=10.137
http://blogs.discovermagazine.....com/d-brief/2013/09/
http://sciencythoughts.blogspo....t.ca/2013/12/a-scorp
https://www.newscientist.com/a....rticle/dn18346-oldes
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1420-
https://www.nature.com/article....s/nature10969?messag
https://ac.els-cdn.com/S0960982215009276/1-s2.0-S0960982215009276-main.pdf?_tid=7f5f51ce-0486-11e8-9da1-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1517183815_9a41800ae5d0f975bf3b4dfb1f81fdac
https://books.google.com/books?id=hFLmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=first+terrestrial+arachnids&source=bl&ots=tyPhAKSwrP&sig=xK1ZdvR6toJsYAhfIUHUQmlWFks&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixx-747fvYAhUE2WMKHZQOC8MQ6AEIiwEwEQ#v=onepage&q=first%20terrestrial%20arachnids&f=false

Check out Monstrum! https://www.youtube.com/monstrumpbs
From our deepest origins in Africa all the way to the Americas, by looking at the fossils and archaeological materials we have been able to trace the path our ancestors took during thee short window of time when we took over the world.

Thanks to Julio Lacerda and Studio 252mya for the human migration illustration. You can find more of Julio's work here: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Stefan Weber, Ilya Murashov, Charles Kahle, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1GizNGXmo0E8fTu

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The tools made by our human ancestors may not seem like much when you compare them to the screen you’re looking at right now but their creation represents a pivotal moment in the origin of technology and in the evolution of our lineage.

Thanks to Fabrizio De Rossi, Julio Lacerda and everyone else at Studio 252mya for their excellent hominin illustrations. You can find more of their work here: https://252mya.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, XULIN GE, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi, Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References:
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evi....dence/human-fossils/
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evi....dence/human-fossils/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://www.nature.com/scitabl....e/knowledge/library/
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05696-8
https://www.smithsonianmag.com..../science-nature/olde
https://anthromuseum.missouri.....edu/exhibit/oldowan-
De Heinzelin, J., Clark, J. D., White, T., Hart, W., Renne, P., WoldeGabriel, G., ... & Vrba, E. (1999). Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science, 284(5414), 625-629.
Ferraro, J. V., Plummer, T. W., Pobiner, B. L., Oliver, J. S., Bishop, L. C., Braun, D. R., ... & Hertel, F. (2013). Earliest archaeological evidence of persistent hominin carnivory. PloS one, 8(4), e62174.
Gabunia, L., Antón, S. C., Lordkipanidze, D., Vekua, A., Justus, A., & Swisher III, C. C. (2001). Dmanisi and dispersal. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews: Issues, News, and Reviews, 10(5), 158-170.
Harmand, S., Lewis, J. E., Feibel, C. S., Lepre, C. J., Prat, S., Lenoble, A., ... & Taylor, N. (2015). 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya. Nature, 521(7552), 310.
Kappelman, J. (2018). An early hominin arrival in Asia. Nature, 480.
Scott, G. R., & Gibert, L. (2009). The oldest hand-axes in Europe. Nature, 461(7260), 82.
Stout, D., Toth, N., Schick, K., & Chaminade, T. (2008). Neural correlates of Early Stone Age toolmaking: technology, language and cognition in human evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 363(1499), 1939-1949.
Tuffreau, A., Lamotte, A., & Marcy, J. L. (1997). Land-use and site function in Acheulean complexes of the Somme Valley. World Archaeology, 29(2), 225-241.
Williams-Hatala, E. M., Hatala, K. G., Gordon, M., Key, A., Kasper, M., & Kivell, T. L. (2018). The manual pressures of stone tool behaviors and their implications for the evolution of the human hand. Journal of human evolution, 119, 14-26.
Zhu, Z., Dennell, R., Huang, W., Wu, Y., Qiu, S., Yang, S., ... & Ouyang, T. (2018). Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago. Nature, 559(7715), 608.

Check out It’s Okay To Be Smart’s video for more about the origins of life on earth: https://youtu.be/_uAJY1mqtw4
And check out PBS Space Time’s video on the physics of life: https://youtu.be/GcfLZSL7YGw

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Try Audible for 30 days visit https://www.audible.com/eons or text eons to 500500!

Sea scorpions thrived for 200 million years, coming in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Over time, they developed a number of adaptations--from crushing claws to flattened tails for swimming. And some of them adapted by getting so big that they still hold the record as the largest arthropods of all time.

Thank you to these paleoartists for allowing us to use their wonderful illustrations:
Franz Anthony: https://252mya.com/gallery/franz-anthony
Ceri Thomas: http://alphynix.tumblr.com/
Lucas Lima: https://252mya.com/gallery/lucas-lima
Julio Lacerda: https://252mya.com/gallery/julio-lacerda
Nobu Tamura: https://spinops.blogspot.com/


Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Robert Amling, Po Foon Kwong, Larry Wilson, Merri Snaidman, Renzo Caimi Ordenes, John Vanek, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Philip Slingerland, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
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References:
Braddy, Simon J., Richard J. Aldridge, Sarah E. Gabbott, and Johannes N. Theron. "Lamellate book-gills in a late Ordovician eurypterid from the Soom Shale, South Africa: support for a eurypterid-scorpion clade." Lethaia 32, no. 1 (1999): 72-74.
Braddy, Simon J., Markus Poschmann, and O. Erik Tetlie. "Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod." Biology Letters 4, no. 1 (2007): 106-109. https://royalsocietypublishing.....org/doi/full/10.109
Brezinski, David K., and Albert D. Kollar. "Reevaluation of the Age and Provenance of the Giant Palmichnium kosinskiorum Eurypterid Trackway, from Elk County, Pennsylvania." Annals of Carnegie Museum 84, no. 1 (2016): 39-45.
Briggs, Derek EG, and WD Ian Rolfe. "A giant arthropod trackway from the Lower Mississippian of Pennsylvania." Journal of Paleontology (1983): 377-390. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1304661.pdf?seq=1
Elliott, David K., and Michael A. Petriello. "New poraspids (Agnatha, Heterostraci) from the Early Devonian of the western United States." Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 31, no. 3 (2011): 518-530.
Lamsdell, James C., and Simon J. Braddy. "Cope's Rule and Romer's theory: patterns of diversity and gigantism in eurypterids and Palaeozoic vertebrates." Biology Letters (2009): doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700
Lamsdell, James C., Simon J. Braddy, and O. Erik Tetlie. "Redescription of Drepanopterus abonensis (Chelicerata: Eurypterida: Stylonurina) from the Late Devonian of Portishead, UK." Palaeontology 52, no. 5 (2009): 1113-1139.
Legg, David A. "Sanctacaris uncata: the oldest chelicerate (Arthropoda). "Naturwissenschaften 101, no. 12 (2014): 1065-1073.
Manning, P. L. and Dunlop, J. A. “The respiratory organs of eurypterids.” Palaeontology, 38, no. 2 (1995): 287–297.
McCoy, Victoria E., James C. Lamsdell, Markus Poschmann, Ross P. Anderson, and Derek EG Briggs. "All the better to see you with: eyes and claws reveal the evolution of divergent ecological roles in giant pterygotid eurypterids." Biology letters 11, no. 8 (2015): 20150564.
Poschmann, Markus, Brigitte Schoenemann, and Victoria E. McCoy. "Telltale eyes: the lateral visual systems of Rhenish Lower Devonian eurypterids (Arthropoda, Chelicerata) and their palaeobiological implications." Palaeontology 59, no. 2 (2016): 295-304.
Selden, P. A., and John David Lawson. "Eurypterid respiration." Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 309, no. 1138 (1985): https://royalsocietypublishing.....org/doi/pdf/10.1098
Tetlie, O. Erik. "Distribution and dispersal history of Eurypterida (Chelicerata)." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 252, no. 3-4 (2007): 557-574. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.o....rg/6434/bc6cdbfd7613
Vrazo, Matthew B., and Simon J. Braddy. "Testing the ‘mass-moult-mate’hypothesis of eurypterid palaeoecology." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 311, no. 1-2 (2011): 63-73.
Whyte, Martin A. "Palaeoecology: a gigantic fossil arthropod trackway." Nature 438, no. 7068 (2005): 576.

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A huge and diverse subfamily of dogs, the bone-crushers patrolled North America for more than thirty million years, before they disappeared in the not-too-distant past. So what happened to the biggest dogs that ever lived?

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Kelby Reid, Steph Summerfield, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan

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References:
Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History by Xiaoming Wang & Richard H. Tedford.
The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals by Donald Prothero.
Evolution of Tertiary Mammals in North America, Volume 1: Terrestrial Carnivores, Ungulates, and Ungulatelike Mammals edited by Christine M. Janis.
The Skeleton of the Borophaginae (Carnivora, Canidae): Morphology and Function by Kathleen Munthe.
Vertebrates: Structures and Functions by S.M. Kisia.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC45072
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org..../bitstream/handle/22
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC59369
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26285033
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267156822_Phylogenetic_systematics_of_the_Borophaginae_Carnivora_Canidae?enrichId=rgreq-d5b9b9334f3e7d5206bb87428d1dc7db-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NzE1NjgyMjtBUzoxNTQ5NTc4MzE0NzkyOTZAMTQxMzk1NjIzNDUyOA%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC59639
https://www.cambridge.org/core..../journals/journal-of
http://www.naturalhistorymag.c....om/htmlsite/0708/070

Check out Origin of Everything: https://www.youtube.com/channe....l/UCiB8h9jD2Mlxx96ZF

If you’ve ever been to, or lived in, or even flown over the central swath of North America, then you’ve seen the remnants of what was a uniquely fascinating environment. Scientists call it the Western Interior Seaway, and at its greatest extent, it ran from the Caribbean Sea to the Canadian Arctic.

Thanks to Dmitry Bogdanov, Nobu Tamura, C.R. Scotese, NASA and the many others listed throughout the video for making their images available to use.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Anthony Callaghan, Neil H. Gray, Marilyn Wolmart, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, سلطان الخليفي, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

If you'd like to support the channel, head over to http://patreon.com/eons and pledge for some cool rewards!

Want to follow Eons elsewhere on the internet?
Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/eonsshow
Twitter - https://twitter.com/eonsshow
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/eonsshow/

References:
Oceans of Kansas: A Natural History of the Western Interior Seaway (Second Edition) by Michael J. Everhart.
https://www.tandfonline.com/do....i/abs/10.1080/027246
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/259517413
https://www.researchgate.net/p....rofile/Joshua_Slatte
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/321632109
https://www.tandfonline.com/do....i/abs/10.1080/027246
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1306568
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/pp1561
http://rspb.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/278
https://link.springer.com/arti....cle/10.1007%2FBF0299
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.o....rg/gsa/geology/artic
https://www.rushcounty.org/Pos....tRockMuseum/PostRock

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you

Viewers like you help make PBS (Thank you