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A huge and diverse subfamily of dogs, the bone-crushers patrolled North America for more than thirty million years, before they disappeared in the not-too-distant past. So what happened to the biggest dogs that ever lived?

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Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
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References:
Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History by Xiaoming Wang & Richard H. Tedford.
The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals by Donald Prothero.
Evolution of Tertiary Mammals in North America, Volume 1: Terrestrial Carnivores, Ungulates, and Ungulatelike Mammals edited by Christine M. Janis.
The Skeleton of the Borophaginae (Carnivora, Canidae): Morphology and Function by Kathleen Munthe.
Vertebrates: Structures and Functions by S.M. Kisia.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC45072
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org..../bitstream/handle/22
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC59369
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26285033
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267156822_Phylogenetic_systematics_of_the_Borophaginae_Carnivora_Canidae?enrichId=rgreq-d5b9b9334f3e7d5206bb87428d1dc7db-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NzE1NjgyMjtBUzoxNTQ5NTc4MzE0NzkyOTZAMTQxMzk1NjIzNDUyOA%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC59639
https://www.cambridge.org/core..../journals/journal-of
http://www.naturalhistorymag.c....om/htmlsite/0708/070

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Ratites have spread to Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and South America. And there are fossils of Ratites in Europe, Asia, and North America too. That’s a lot of ground to cover for birds that can’t fly. So how did Ratites end up all over the world?

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the Lithornithid reconstruction. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Thanks as always to Nobu Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:

Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Anthony Callaghan, Esmeralda Rupp-Spangle, Gregory Donovan, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, الخليفي سلطان, Gabriel Cortez, Marcus Lejon, Anel Salas, Robert Arévalo, Robert Hill, Kelby Reid, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, PS, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Jacob Gerke, Alex Yan

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References:
http://www.pnas.org/content/ea....rly/2014/03/14/13149
https://researchcommons.waikat....o.ac.nz/handle/10289
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/228865624
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3545707
http://www.pnas.org/content/115/7/1546
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01871
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC27916
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC18100
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/324/5923/42
https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01838
https://academic.oup.com/bioli....nnean/article/112/4/
http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/5660
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
http://science.sciencemag.org/....content/344/6186/898
http://rspb.royalsocietypublis....hing.org/content/276
https://digital.library.adelai....de.edu.au/dspace/han
http://www.pnas.org/content/110/42/16910
https://dspace.flinders.edu.au..../xmlui/handle/2328/3
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27989673
https://www.tandfonline.com/do....i/full/10.1080/02724
https://www.notornis.osnz.org.....nz/notes-weight-flyi
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2462941
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1002/jm

Try CuriosityStream today: http://curiositystream.com/eons

Paleontologists have been studying and drawing totally different conclusions about the fossil LH PV18 for almost a decade. Is it just one of many specimens of a theropod called Tarbosaurus bataar or is it an entirely different theropod named Raptorex kriegsteini? In order to answer this question, you have to understand the many ways in which we can--and can’t--determine the age of a fossil.

Thanks to Gregory S. Paul for allowing us to use his illustrations in this video. Check out his website here: http://gspauldino.com/

And thanks as always to Nobu Tamura for allowing us to use his wonderful paleoart: http://spinops.blogspot.com/

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Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
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References:
https://www.radiocarbon.com/ab....out-carbon-dating.ht
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep20252
https://www.researchgate.net/p....ublication/288175395
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.co....m/doi/abs/10.1111/j.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1360/02tb9031
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
https://journals.plos.org/plos....one/article?id=10.13
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/326/5951/418
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3515101

Check out ReInventors: https://www.youtube.com/channe....l/UCzZRoStdiqWxauQT2

Experts are still arguing over whether Archaeopteryx was a true bird, or a paravian dinosaur, or some other kind of dino. But regardless of what side you’re on, how did this fascinating, bird-like animal relate to today’s birds? It turns out its teeth were a clue that this story goes all the way back to what we now call the non-avian dinosaurs.

Thanks to Ceri Thomas for the excellent Longipteryx reconstruction. Check out more of Ceri's paleoart at http://alphynix.tumblr.com and http://nixillustration.com

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Super special thanks to the following Patreon patrons for helping make Eons possible:
Katie Fichtner, Aldo Espinosa Zúñiga, Kelby Reid, Steph Summerfield, Todd Dittman, Betsy Radley, Svetlana Pylaeva, Colin Sylvester, Philip Slingerland, John Vanek, Jose Garcia, Noah offitzer, Eric Vonk, Tony Wamsley, Henrik Peteri, Jonathan Wright, Wilco Verweij, Jon Monteiro, James Bording, Brad Nicholls, Miles Chaston, Michael McClellan, Elysha Nygård, Jeff Graham, Maria Humphrey, Nathan Paskett, Connor Jensen, Ehit Dinesh Agarwal, Sapjes, Daisuke Goto, Zachary Winkler, Hubert Rady, Yuntao Zhou, Gregory Kintz, Tyson Cleary, Chandler Bass, Maly Lor, Joao Ascensao, Tsee Lee, Sarah Fritts, Ruben Winter, Ron Harvey Jr, Joshua Mitchell, Johnny Li, Jacob Gerke, Katie M Vasilescu, Brandon Burke, Alex Yan

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References:
doi:10.2475/ajs.s3-14.83.337
https://digitallibrary.amnh.or....g/bitstream/handle/2
Bakker RT. 1986. The Dinosaur Heresies. Zebra Books, New York. 481 pp. ISBN: 0806522607
https://paleoglot.org/files/Ji&Ji_96.pdf
doi:10.1038/scientificamericandinosaurs0514-76
Martyniuk, MP. 2012. A Field Guide to Mesozoic Birds and Other Winged DInosaurs. Pan Aves, Vernon, NJ. 191 pp.
ISBN-13: 978-0-9885965-0-4
Baby enantiornithine: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2017.06.001
Enantiornithine wings: https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12089
Baby dinosaur tail: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.008
https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrg.20018
https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JE001532
https://doi.org/10.1130/B25402.1
https://www.cell.com/current-b....iology/fulltext/S096
https://www.cell.com/current-b....iology/fulltext/S096
https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/

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References:
IMAGE: Horseshoe crab
https://pixnio.com/fauna-anima....ls/crabs-and-lobster
IMAGE: Trilobite https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Megalaspides_01.jpg?fastcci_from=204367&c1=204367&c2=3618826&d1=15&d2=0&s=200
IMAGE: Arthropod family Tree
https://evolution.berkeley.edu..../evolibrary/article/
And although horseshoe crabs made it to modern times and trilobites didn’t, they both have ancient beginnings. The oldest known trilobite is ~540 million years old, but the horseshoe crabs weren’t far behind with the earliest example showing up ~445 million years ago. So technically just looking at a horseshoe crab you’re looking back millions of years into the past.
SOURCE: http://www.igme.es/museo/trilo....08/archivos/TRILOBIT (oldest trilobites)
SOURCE: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com..../doi/10.1111/j.1475- (oldest horseshoe crabs)

IMAGE: bird skull https://etc.usf.edu/clipart/73....400/73460/73460_skul
IMAGE: reptile skull (Px = premaxilla) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Jugal_bone#/media/Fi

IMAGE: Limusaurus https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Limusaurus
Source: http://b3.ifrm.com/30233/130/0..../p3001488/PIIS096098

IMAGE: Archaeornithura https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Archaeorni
MAGE: Archaeopteryx https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Archaeopte

SOURCE: Paleo Art
https://naturalhistory.si.edu/....exhibits/backyard-di
SOURCE: Digital reconstruction https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/p....mc/articles/PMC50989

IMAGE: fossilization https://www.nature.com/scienti....ficamerican/journal/
SOURCE: fossilization
http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo3xx/geo308/FoldersOnServer/2003/1fossil&taph&ichno.htm
SOURCE: Anthropocene
http://environment.harvard.edu..../news/faculty-news/h

This week Craig talks about police searches and seizures. Now, the fourth amendment says that you have the right to be protected against "unreasonable searches and seizures" but what exactly does this mean? Well, it's complicated. The police often need warrants issued with proof of probable cause, but this isn't always the case - such as when you're pulled over for a moving violation. We'll finish up with the limitations of these protections and discuss one group of people in particular that aren't protected equally - students.

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All attributed images are licensed under Creative Commons by Attribution 2.0

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This week, we're continuing our discussion of heroes by talking about Gilgamesh, star of one of the earliest written hero stories, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh was a terrible ancient king who left his kingdom seeking adventure, and eventually on the prowl for immortality. Along the way, he checks pretty much all the boxes on the checklist of Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey.

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In which John Green ACTUALLY teaches about the Civil War. In part one of our two part look at the US Civil War, John looks into the causes of the war, and the motivations of the individuals who went to war. The overarching causes and the individual motivations were not always the same, you see. John also looks into why the North won, and whether that outcome was inevitable. The North's industrial and population advantages are examined, as are the problems of the Confederacy, including its need to build a nation at the same time it was fighting a war. As usual, John doesn't get much into the actual battle by battle breakdown. He does talk a little about the overarching strategy that won the war, and Grant's plan to just overwhelm the South with numbers. Grant took a lot of losses in the latter days of the war, but in the end, it did lead to the surrender of the South. If you want to learn more about the Civil War, we recommend these books:
Battle Cry of Freedom by James McPherson
The Civil War by Shelby Foote

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. There were many causes of the American Civil War and events that led to disunion: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/causes-of-the-amer
Once the war started, its outcome was determined by the different abilities and resources of the divided North and South: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/a-nation-divided-n

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As we wrap up Crash Course Philosophy, we’re using the things we’ve learned to explore big issues like the value of life. Today, we’re discussing abortions in cases of fetal abnormality, assisted suicide, and euthanasia. We will consider the standard of substituted judgment and the values people hold on both sides of these issues—values about the sacredness of life, and the importance of a life of quality, as well as the values of personal liberty and avoiding pain.

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Massive stars fuse heavier elements in their cores than lower mass stars. This leads to the creation of heavier elements up to iron. Iron robs critical energy from the core, causing it to collapse. The shock wave, together with a huge swarm of neutrinos, blast through the star’s outer layers, causing it to explode. The resulting supernova creates even more heavy elements, scattering them through space. Also, happily, we’re in no danger from a nearby supernova.

Crash Course Astronomy Poster: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Table of Contents
Massive Stars Fuse Heavier Elements Up To Iron 1:15
Iron Uses High Amounts of Energy, Thus Making Stars Collapse 3:58
The Resulting Supernova Creates Even Heavier Elements 10:00
Relax, Something Else Will Kill You 9:04

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PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Blowing Bubbles http://chandra.harvard.edu/res....ources/animations/pn [credit: NASA/CXC/April Jubett]
The Sizes of Stars http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1030c/ [credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser]
Red giants https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Redgiants. [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Alpha Orionis http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/h....u/db/images/hs-1996- [credit: A. Dupree (CfA), NASA, ESA]
Sun and VY Canis Majoris https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Sun_and_VY [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Witch Head Nebula and Rigel http://www.deepskycolors.com/a....rchive/2009/11/16/wi [credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo]
Layers of a massive star https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....User:FT2/scc#/media/ [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
NASA's Swift Reveals New Phenomenon in a Neutron Star http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/swift/bursts/new [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
What is a black hole? http://www.nasa.gov/audience/f....orstudents/k-4/stori [credit: NASA/CXC/M.Weiss]
The Death of Stars http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hubblecast52a [credit: ESA/Hubble]
Giant Mosaic of the Crab Nebula http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia..../imagegallery/image_ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester (Arizona State University)]
Hubble and Chandra spot a celestial bauble http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic1018b/ [credit: NASA, ESA, the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), and NASA/CXC/SAO/J. Hughes]
Vela Supernova Remnant http://www.glitteringlights.co....m/Images/Nebulae/i-p [credit: Marco Lorenzi]
Spica [credit: Phil Plait]
Cassiopeia A https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Cassiopeia_A#/media/ [credit: Oliver Krause (Steward Observatory) George H. Rieke (Steward Observatory) Stephan M. Birkmann (Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie) Emeric Le Floc'h (Steward Observatory) Karl D. Gordon (Steward Observatory) Eiichi Egami (Steward Observatory) John Bieging (Steward Observatory) John P. Hughes (Rutgers University) Erick Young (Steward Observatory) Joannah L. Hinz (Steward Observatory) Sascha P. Quanz (Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie) Dean C. Hines (Space Science Institute)]
Sloshing Supernova http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Video and images courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Star Burst http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Video courtesy of ESA/Hubble/L. Calcada]

How do astronomers make sense out of the vastness of space? How do they study things so far away? Today Phil talks about distances, going back to early astronomy. Ancient Greeks were able to find the size of the Earth, and from that the distance to and the sizes of the Moon and Sun. Once the Earth/Sun distance was found, parallax was used to find the distance to nearby stars, and that was bootstrapped using brightness to determine the distances to much farther stars.

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Table of Contents
Ancient Greeks Finding the Size of the Earth 1:07
Earth/Sun Distance Began Our Use of Parallax 5:39
Brightness Relation to Distance 9:07

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PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Lunar Ecplise http://www.slate.com/content/d....am/slate/blogs/bad_a [credit: Phil Plait]
Venus & Mercury [credit: Phil Plait]
Venus Transit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34mXua1n_FQ [credit: NASA]
Black Drop Venus Transit https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Black_drop_effect#me [credit: Wikimedia Commons, H. Raab, Johannes-Kepler-Observatory]
New Horizons Approaching Pluto and Charon https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....New_Horizons#/media/ [credit: NASA/JHU APL/SwRI/Steve Gribben]
Radio Telescopes Diagram http://scitechdaily.com/images..../Radio-Telescopes-Se [credit: Alexandra Angelich, NRAO/AUI/NSF]
61 Cygni https://archive.stsci.edu/cgi-bin/dss_search?v=poss1_red&r=21+06+54.60&d=%2B38+44+44.9&e=J2000&h=30&w=30&f=gif&c=none&fov=NONE&v3= [credit: Caltech / National Geographic Society / STScI]
Proxima Centauri https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1343a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Dying Star http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/64884main_image [credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)]
Exploding Star http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia..../imagegallery/image_ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester, A. Loll (ASU)]
Animation of a Variable Star http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1323j/ [credit: NASA, ESA, M. Kornmesser]
Hubble's High-Definition Panoramic View of the Andromeda Galaxy http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and L.C. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, and R. Gendler]

Today we are taking all the things we have learned this year about doing philosophy and applying that to moral considerations regarding non-human animals. We’ll explore what philosophers like Peter Singer and Carl Cohen have to say about their use, including the concept of equal consideration of interests.

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Hello, world! Welcome to Crash Course Computer Science! So today, we’re going to take a look at computing’s origins, because even though our digital computers are relatively new, the need for computation is not. Since the start of civilization itself, humans have had an increasing need for special devices to help manage laborious tasks, and as the scale of society continued to grow, these computational devices began to play a crucial role in amplifying our mental abilities. From the abacus and astrolabe to the difference engine and tabulating machine, we’ve come a long way to satisfying this increasing need, and in the process completely transformed commerce, government, and daily life.

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If you want to make a movie, generally you're going to want to start with a script. In this episode of Crash Course Film Production, Lily Gladstone talks about the basics of screenplays and how to get started thinking about and actually writing your movie.

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Hank tells us the background story and explains the importance of the science of classifying living things, also known as taxonomy.

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Table of Contents
1) Taxonomy 0:00
2) Phylogenetic Tree 1:24
3) Biolography 2:26
4) Analogous/Homoplasic Traits 3:48
5) Homologous Traits 4:03
6) Taxa & Binomial Nomenclature 4:56
7) Domains 5:48
a) Bateria 6:04
b) Archaea 6:44
c) Eukarya / 4 Kingdoms 6:54
-Plantae 7:56
-Protista 8:23
-Fungi 8:56
-Animalia 9:31

taxonomy, classification, classifying, evolution, filing, science, biology, life, organism, relationship, ancestor, ancestry, evolutionary tree, phylogenetic tree, tree of life, biolography, carl von linnaeus, linnaeus, botanist, botanical name, morphology, homologous traits, systema naturae, taxa, groups, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species, binomial nomenclature, latin, domain, archaea, eukarya, division, autotrophs, heterotrophs, protist, fungi, animalia, animal, cat, kitty Support CrashCourse on Subbable: http://subbable.com/crashcourse

Our exploration of ethical theories continues with another theistic answer to the grounding problem: natural law theory. Thomas Aquinas’s version of this theory says that we all seek out what’s known as the basic goods and argued that instinct and reason come together to point us to the natural law. There are, of course, objections to this theory – in particular, the is-ought problem advanced by David Hume.


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So now that we’ve built and programmed our very own CPU, we’re going to take a step back and look at how CPU speeds have rapidly increased from just a few cycles per second to gigahertz! Some of that improvement, of course, has come from faster and more efficient transistors, but a number hardware designs have been implemented to boost performance. And you’ve probably heard or read about a lot of these - they’re the buzz words attached to just about every new CPU release - terms like instruction pipelining, cache, FLOPS, superscalar, branch prediction, multi-core processors, and even super computers! These designs are pretty complicated, but the fundamental concepts behind them are not. So bear with us as we introduce a lot of new terminology including what might just be the best computer science term of all time: the dirty bit. Let us explain.

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In which John Green and Hank Green teach you about how human primates moved out of Africa and turned Earth into a real-life Planet of the Apes. And the apes are people! John and Hank teach you about how humans evolved, and the sort of tricks they picked up along the way like complex tool use, big brains, and fighting. Our ancestors adapted to the grasslands of Africa, and went through several iterations including Australopithecus, Homo Habilis, and Homo Ergaster/Erectus. Our ancestors tamed fire, made pressure flake tools, and eventually smartphones.

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Today, we’re going to take a look at how computers use a stream of 1s and 0s to represent all of our data - from our text messages and photos to music and webpages. We’re going to focus on how these binary values are used to represent numbers and letters, and discuss how our need to perform operations on larger and more complex values brought us from our 8-bit video games to beautiful Instagram photos, and from unreadable garbled text in our emails to a universal language encoding scheme.


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